
Class iL^*Ai 

Book *W_A-4- 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




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Tke Farmers Friend 



THE MOST COMPLETE AND PR.ACTICAL BOOK EVER PLACED 
INTO THE HANDS OF THE FARMER 



J^Ki 



^: yj jiU' 



PUBLISHED BY 

1. C. WELTY. M. D., A. B., Ph. B. 

NEVADA, IOWA. 



^ 



V) 



AV»< 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

i»PR 29 1907 

.rr-Coostrifht Entry 
CUSS /\ xxc, n6.' 

I L B ^tf- 

COPY B. 



Copyright applied for. 



Geo. A. Miller Printing Company 
Des Moines, Iowa 



Table of Contents, 



A. B. C. of Corn Culture by Prof. Holden Of Iowa Agriculture 
College — Illus, 

A Few of the Leading Varieties of Corn 114 

Agreement for Cultivating Land on Shares 56 

All about Right of Way 67 

A Lawful Fence 76 

Apoplexy 245 

Arbitration Best for Farmers 65 

Asthma . 261 

Balky Horses • •• •. 1'^'* 

Black Leg , . , 203 

Bleeding — How to Stop 165 

Blind Staggers 246 

Blind Staggers 251 

Board and Plank Measure i>28 

Bookkeeping Department 

Cattle, Sheep or other live Stock 337-342 

Individual Acct. with 343-348 

Cash Paid Out 349-353 

Acct. with Hired Help 354-368 

Bots, The Correct Treatment 159 

Bowels 173 

Breeders Tables — How to Use 275-312 

Calves— Feeding Calves 210 

Calves, Care of Same 222 

Canada Thistle 140 

Catarrh 253 

Catarrh — Sniffle Disease in Pigs 239 

Cattle, Highest Price Paid 219 

Certificate of Acknowledgment 45 

Chattel Mortgage 5^ 

Chicken Cholera 259 

Chicken Mite 229 

Clover as a Fertilizer 149 

Cold : 172 

Colic 176 

Colts — Breaking 179 

Contracts. Laws governing Same 58 

Contract, Drunkenness 59 

Contract for the sale of Horses, Cattle or other Personal. Property 61 

Contract for Laying tile or Building Fence 82 

Corn Lecture by Prof. Ten Eyck of Agricultural Col. of Kas. . . . 120 
Colic. — How to Cure Colic 160 



Corns in Horses — How to Cure , 165 

Corn Stock Disease 208 

Cough 23& 

Cure for Worms in Hogs. . . .' 243 

Colic 2L3 

Curb 162 

Curb 16S 

Deeds. How to write a Deed 415 

Diarrhoea 240 

Diphtheria 237 

Diarrhoea 252 

Diseases of Cattle 201 

Diseases of Throat and Lungs 235 

Drainage Laws 83 

Domestic Animals 150 

Do not Import Seed Corn 103 

Dysentery 253 

Education of the farm Boy and Girl 3 9 

Entry Notice 68 

Estrays 73 

Exemptions 81 

Executors and Administrators 8 2 

Exemption Laws 86 

Ex Farmers 149 

Epizootic 175 

Epidemic Ophthalmia 206 

Egg Food Powder 263 

Eggs — How to Preserve 267 

Form of Chattel Mortgage 5 3 

Form of Lease 5 4 

Form of Mechanics Lien 6 2 

Findings of various Courts in the United States in Important. . 67 

Freezing of Corn 117 

Feeding Value of Potatoes ,..145 

Founder 159 

Fistula 162 

Fence Laws 70 

Foot and Mouth Disease 205 

Gapes 260 

Grain Table — How to Use 331-335 

Good Roads, without Cost to the Farmer 10 

Germinating Test 96 

Glanders 163 

Gubs in the Skin 202 

General Diseases 249 

Grub in the Head 249 

How to Measure Corn in Crib 320 



How to Measure Hay in Mow or Stack o21 

How to Find the Contents of a Wagon Box 32 3 

How to Find the Number of Shingles Required for a Roof 327 

How to write a Contract 59 

How to secure a Mechanics Lien 63 

How to settle Difficulties by Arbitration 6o 

Homesteads 7 7 

Homesteads under United States Land Laws 7 8 

How to find the Carrying Capacity of Tile S5 

How to Breed and Care for Horses 153 

Hide Bound 162 

Hints about the Horse 181 

How to Breed and Care for Cattle 184 

Hog Cholera cannot be cured 228 

How to Destroy Mites 265 

Interest Table — How to Use 313-317 

Itch — Mange 165 

Inflammation of the Lungs 238 

Intestinal Worms 242 

Laws and Legal Forms 41 

Law Governing Deeds 42 

Leases 5 4 

Lease for Renting a House 55 

Lease for Cash Rent 55 

Law Governing the Sale and transfer of Property 82 

Lock Jaw 161 

Lampas 170 

Lice — Sure Cure 173 

Lazy Horses 173 

Luck 223 

Land Contract 60 

Manual Training 27 

Mortgages and Leases 4 ij 

Mouth. Sore mouth 163 

Mites — How to Destroy 164 

Milk Fever 215 

Milch Cows 219 

Miscellaneous Diseases of Hogs 227 

Mode of Administering Medicine to Sheep 254 

Monthly Wage Table 332 

Nasal Gleet or Discharge from the Eye 166 

Notaries Public 51 

Ointment for Horses 164 

Ophthalmia 254 

Poultry Houses — How Ventilated 272 

Poem — Two Pictures tf 

Preface 3 



Petition for Laying out Road 6 6 

Property that cannot be taken for Debts 86 

Poisoning Gophers 143 

Potato Scab 146 

Preparing Seed Corn for the Planter 99 

Poor Stand of Corn 106 

Putrid Erysipelas 228 

Putrid Sore Throat 232 

Piles in Pigs 243 

Quinsy 235 

Roup 2 60 

Ringbone 169 

Russian Thistle 136 

Reclaiming Estrays 74 

School Consolidation . . '. 21 

Security for Rent 56 

Seed Corn 92 

Seed Improvement 92 

Sulphur for Insects 268 

Sheep Ticks 255 

Scrofulous Diseases 249 

Sheep Department 249 

Sore Face and Lips 254 

Swollen Legs 163 

Spavin 166 

Self-Sucking Cow 202 

Scours in Calves 209 

Smut and Corn Stalks 215 

Scrub Stock 216 

Teeth 171 

Ty::hoid Enteritis 234 

Tes.ing each Ear of Corn 108 

Terms and Facts of Criminal Law 71 

Time debts are Outlawed 87 

Tresspassing Animals 69 

Test Cases 69 

The Farmers' Friend 5 

Trusts 318 

Varieties of Poultry 256 

Variety Test of Corn 107 

Weekly Way Table 334 

Why I Left the Farm 7 

Warranty Deed 4 3 

Why Oats run Out 135 

Wind Galls .161 

Worms — Kidney Worms 242 

Weeds and Sheep 255 



PREFACE. 

THE author does not flatter himself to have done 
the impossible but he does believe that this 
book will be of incalcuable benefit to every 
farmer who desires to get the greatest re- 
turns for time and capital expended. 

While success in farming as in every other pursuit 
depends largely upon the individual yet the author be- 
lieves that a careful reading and an occasional referring 
to this book which contains many of the most convenient 
tables now placed before the public cannot help but be a 
lasting benefit. 

It has been the intention to make this a farmer's 
handbook, one that he may rely upon, one that he may 
refer to at all times and at all seasons of the year for 
guidance. Without loading it with technicalities it has 
been the endeavor to embody in its teaching the latest 
discoveries in the science of agriculture. 

It is universally admitted that agriculture is the basis 
of all wealth, prosperity and luxury. 

The farmer is the most important member of human 
society and will in no distant future be considered the 
leader and promoter of those things which go to make 
this the most progressive, patriotic and enlightened 
country in the world. 

The author of this book was for several years general 
agent for a little book entitled "Business Guide" of 



which he through his agents sold over one hundred 
thousand copies. 

It was then that he learned of the demand for some 
practical common sense book on the subject of agri- 
culture, stock raising, business forms and laws which 
would be of assistance to the farmer. 

After years of careful study, investigation and dili- 
gent research, it is beyond a question of doubt that we 
have now prepared a book which for the farmers' use has 
not as yet been excelled. 

The author has constantly held in mind those who are 
now actively engaged in agricultural pursuits. In other 
words, it has been the intention to make it a convenient 
and useful handbook on things agricultural and pertain- 
ing to the interest of the agriculturist. 

While we know perfectly well that on any of the topics 
we have presented, a great deal more might be said 
than the compass of this work permits, yet should this 
volume prove a benefit to the progressive farmers, the 
labor spent in its preparation will not have been in vain 



The Farmers^ Friend* 



(By I. C. Welty, M. Di., A. B., Ph. B.) 



THE FARMERS' FRIEND is one of the most 
complete and practical books ever placed into 
the hands of the farmer. 
Following are a few of the leading subjects 
from which the agriculturist may obtain 
information that should be known by every farmer : 

1. How to obtain good roads without cost to the farmer, the county 
or the state. 

2. The advantages and disadvantages of school consolidation. 

3. Laws and legal forms which every farmer should know. 

4. Selecting and preparing seed corn by professors Holden of the 
State Agricultural College of Iowa, and TenByck, of the State Agricul- 
tural College of Kansas, and valuable notes and suggestions from 
nearly all the specialists in the west central states on the proper 
methods of raising corn. 

5. How to breed and care for horses. Also treats of the diseases 
of horses and. remedies. 

6. How to breed and care for cattle. Diseases of cattle and remedies. 
7 How to breed and care for hogs. Diseases and remedies, etc. 

8. How to care for sheep. Diseases, remedies, etc. 

9. Poultry Department. 

10. The Breeder's Table. Every stock owner should have one of 
these tables. By the single mark of the pencil you may keep an exact 
record of the expected time and age of the young stock. 

11. Ready reckoner, interest tables, grain tables, short methods of 
measuring hay in the stack, corn in the crib, oats in the bin, shingles 
on the roof, lathes for a room, carpet for a floor, etc., etc. 

12. Monopolies and' trusts and their rapid growth. 

Orders promptly filled in all parts of the United States 
by Business Publishing Co., Nevada, Iowa. 

"Agriculture, the most useful, the most healthful and the noblest em- 
ployment of man." — Washington. 

"The farmers are the founders of civilization and prosperity." 

) — Webster. 

"Agriculture is the basis and strength of all national prosperity." 

— Napoleon. 

"The greatest nations of Europe strain every effort to make science 
the handmaid of WAR. Let it be the glory of the great American peo- 
ple to make sience the handmaid of AG-RICULTURE."— Hon. Jeeey 
Rusk, Ex-Secretary of Agriculture. 



TWO PICTURES. 

An old farm-house with pastures wide. 

Sweet with flowers on every side; 

A restless lad who looks from out 

The porch, with woodbine twined about. 

Wishes a thought from in his heart; 

0, if I only could depart 

From this dull place the world to see, 

Ah me! how happy I would be! 

Amid the city's ceaseless din, 
A man who around the world has been. 
Who, 'mid the tumult and the throng. 
Is thinking, wishing all day long; 
O, could I only tread once more 
The field-path to the farmhouse door. 
The old green meadows could I see. 
Ah me! how happy would I be! 



Wky I Left tke Farm. 



THE old way of farming was a great mistake. 
Everything was done in the wrong way and 
at the wrong time. Many guesses were made 
more or less at variance with facts and 
theory. 

It was all work and waste, weariness and want. They 
used to fence a quarter section of land with a boy and 
mongrel dog. 

The farmer hauled his coal from the coal bank some- 
times a distance of forty or fifty miles and hauled his 
grain a like distance. We had poor houses, the rain 
held the roofs in perfect contempt and the snow drifted 
joyfully on the floors and beds. 

Early to rise and late with their chores was the motto 
that haunted every farm boy's peaceful slumber. 

They had no barns, the horses and cattle were kept in 
rail or pole sheds covered and surrounded with straw. 

Long before spring the sides would be eaten away. 
When stock is exposed to the storms of winter, it takes 
all the hay and corn it is possible to raise to prevent 
actual starvation. 

When spring came, and often before spring, the supply 
of coal was exhausted. Women were supposed to know 
the art of making fires without fuel. The wood pile 
consisted as a general thing of one log upon which an 
axe or two had been worn out in vain. Everything 
about the farm was disagreeable. The wagons stood 
in the sun and rain and the plows rusted in the fields. 

There was no leisure, no feeling that the work was 
done. 

It was all labor and weariness and vexation. 

The crops were destroyed by wandering herds or they 
were put too late or caught by the frost, or devoured by 
the grass-hoppers, or washed away by floods or rotted 



FARMERS' FRIEND 



in the stacks or molded in the crib or dug up by the 
gophers. 

These were not all the pests that preyed ^pon the un- 
sophisticated farmer. While the farmer was pursuing 
agriculture he was pursued by the lightning rod agent, 
the patent churn agent, the fence agent, the cheap 
jewelry agent, and last but not least the Bohemian 
oat agent ; and some farmers would like to have the poor 
book agent associated with this list. 

While in spite of all these accidents that lie in wait 
between the plow and reaper, they did succeed in raising 
a good crop and a high price was offered, then the roads 
would be impassible. Nearly every farmer's boy declared 
he would avoid farming as he would the leprosy and took 
an oath that he would never cultivate the soil. But time 
has brought its revenge. The farmer has seen the bank 
president abscond and the insurance company a wrecked 
and ruined fraud. The railroad president a bankrupt 
and the road in the hands of a receiver. 

Towns and cities have suffered, stocks and bonds have 
shrunk from par to worthless paper, princes have become 
paupers and bankers, merchants and millionaires have 
passed into oblivion of bankruptcy. 

The western farmer has the best soil, the greatest re- 
turns for the least labor, more leisure, more time for en- 
joyment than any other farmer in the world. He has the 
long winters in which to become acquainted with his 
family and with his neighbors. Books are cheap and 
every farmer has ample time to become well informed 
along the line of his vocation. There is no reason why 
farmers should not be the kindest and most cultivated 
of men. There is nothing in plowing the fields to make 
men cross, cruel and crabbed. 

We have no hesitation in saying that nine-tenths of the 
worry, misfortunes and losses on a farm come from 
neglect. Occasionally things will a:o wrong, even when 
every care and precaution is taken. We unhesitatingly 
affirm that in nine cases out of ten the farmer brings his 
own good or bad luck. 

The idea must be done awav with that there is some- 



FARMERS FRIEND 



thing degrading intellectually in cultivating the soil. 
Nothing can be nobler than to be useful. Idleness should 
not be respectable. 

No man should be satisfied with a salary. We are lack- 
ing in true courage when for fear of the future we hire at 
a salary that justifies our employer in taking all the risk. 
We should buy a home and then have the will power and 
determination to pay for it. Few men have been patriotic 
enough to shoulder a musket in defense of a boarding house 

I had a thousand times rather have a farm and be inde- 
pendent, than to be president of the United States with- 
out independence ; filled with doubt and trembling, feeling 
of the popular pulse, resorting to art and artifice, enquir- 
ing about the wind of opinion, and succeeding at last in 
losing my self-respect without gaining the respect of 
others. 

There is a quiet about the life of a farmer, and the hope 
of a serene old age that no other business or profession 
can promise. A professional man is doomed sometimes 
to feel that his powers are waning. He is doomed to se? 
younger men pass him in the race of life. He will be. last 
where once he was the first. 

Farmers must educate their children to till the soil. 
The boy must not be taught that tilling the soil is a curse 
and almost a disgrace. They must not suppose that edu- 
cation is thrown away upon them unless they become 
ministers, merchants, doctors or lawyers. It must be un- 
derstood that education can be used to advantage on a 
farm. 

There is no real conflict between latin and labor. Every 
young man educated in this way is simply ruined. Such 
an education ought to be called ignorance. 

It is a thousand times better to have common sense 
without education than education without the sense. 

We have the best country in the world and Iowa is tli3 
best state in that country. 

For my part I envy the man who has lived on the same 
broad acres from his bovhood, who cultivates the fields 
where in youth he played. 

I can imagine no sweeter way to end one's life than in 



10 



FARMERS FRIEND 



the quiet of the country, out of the mad race for money, 
l^lace and i^ower, far from the demands of business, out 
of the dusty highways where fools struggle and strive for 
the hollow praise of other fools. 

Surrounded by pleasant fields and those I love, I hope 
to end my days. Looking from my open window upon 
rustling fields of corn over which will run the sunshine 
and the shadow. 



GOOD ROADS. 

How TO Obtain Good Roads Without Cost to the 
Farmer, the County or the State. 




DRIVING FOR PLEASURE. 
Soft is the song upon the evening air, 
And oh! so soft the lovey-dovey pair; 
And soft the glance from some dark-eyed coquette 
But roads like this, ah! they are softer yet. 

NO one disputes the advantages of good roads. 
There is no one who does not desire good 
roads. But, like a good many other good 
things that we desire, we cannot always see 
our way clear to get them. We are often com- 
pelled to get along with what is inferior because we have 
not the means of getting something better. There has 
been a great deal of talk about road improvement, and 
the belief seems to exist among certain classes that the 
farmer does not know enough to know that he needs bet- 
ter roads, and that hence there must be a campaign of 
education. The farmer knows quite as well as the bicycle 
rider or automobilist what he needs, and he knows much 
better that if the entire expense of making a road that 
will please the bicycle and auto people is to fall on him 
the construction is out of the question. It would confis- 
cate his farm to do it. 



farmers' friend 11 



Suppose we figure the cost of graveling the alternate 
section lines of a township. This would make forty- 
eight miles of gravel or macadam road in each township. 

One mile of well graveled road four feet wide and nine 
inches deep of good gravel — and we make a marked dis- 
tinction between half dirt and half sand and good coarse 
gravel. Four feet is plenty wide as the gravel will in a 
few weeks spread over plenty of space to accommodate 
passing teams. 

Now what will be the cost of this forty-eight miles of 
most excellent road! This would require about five hun- 
dred yards of gravel to the mile at the greatest possible 
expense of five hundred dollars. Do not stop in the midst 
of this article and say you know of miles of road that 
would cost more, wait and learn where the gravel or 
crushed stone is to come from then you will say we have 
figured the cost entirely too high 

For a township this would cost twenty-four thousand 
dollars. Now the question is from what sources are we 
to obtain this money. For the benefit of those that think 
we have not put the figures high enough we wish to add 
that we are of the opinion that at least two-thirds of the 
public roads could be cut down to forty feet in width 
instead of si:^t3^-six feet as at present, this would give 
us about two hundred dollars more to add to the cost of 
each mile of the road. 

Again for the benefit of the few "doubting Thomases", 
we wish to state that fully eighty per cent of the farmers 
would vote in favor of having their mail every other day 
if the half of the moi^gy now paid for delivering mail 
went to pay the interest on the money needed to give us 
good roads. 

Please do not understand us to say we are in favor of 
lowering the mail carriers' salary, such is not the case. 
We are in favor of lessening the number of carriers and 
giving them alternate routes instead of the same route 
each day. 

Why could not the government appropriate one-half 
the amount now paid to mail carriers and decrease the 
number of mail carriers one-half! We desire to gravel 



12 farmers' friend 



forty-eight miles of road in each township — this is the 
distance approximately covered by two average mail car- 
riers. 

Now as we have already said, diminish the number of 
carriers one-half. Be willing to receive your mail every 
other day instead of every day as at present. There is 
no question but that eighty per cent of the farmers would 
agree to this and if laws are made for the benefit of the 
majority, answer for me, if you please, why not have a 
law to this effect? 

This would be a saving of seven hundred twenty dol- 
lars to each township per year. Government bonds are 
now sold at two per cent and a begging demand for them. 

We have already said the cost of graveling forty-eight 
miles of road would cost on an average of twenty-four 
thousand dollars. The seven hundred-twenty dollars we 
save per year by getting our mail every other day instead 
of every day pays the annual interest on thirty-six thou- 
sand dollars or one and one-half times what we claim 
it will cost. 

We throw this in also for the benefit of the sceptical 
for we want to eradicate every shadow of doubt from the 
farmers' mind. 

We quite recently read an article in our home paper 
where it stated that our congressman from the seventh 
congressional district of Iowa expects to get an appro- 
priation of five hundred thousand dollars for a public 
building at Des Moines. Now my dear farmer friend 
you have read similar articles in your home papers at 
different times. Did you ever read where there was an 
appropriation for the farmers' benefit? If Des Moines 
with a population of seventy-five thousand is entitled to 
five hundred thousand, tell us why a county of twenty- 
five thousand is not entitled to one third of five hundred 
thousand or about one hundred sixty-six thousand dol- 
lars? This amount according to our calculations would 
make seven townships of most excellent roads in each 
county. 

The farmer is entitled to this money. These millions 
upon millions now stored up in Washington simply rep- 



farmers' friend 13 



resent the amount of money paid for manufactured arti- 
cles used by the farmers upon which there is a protective 
tariff, to protect whom! Not the farmer that has paid 
this tariff" but the manufacturer. It is the farmer that 
has paid this tariff and from this tariff largely that these 
millions have been accumulated. 

Now we have some excellent politicians for whom we 
leave the workshop, farm and factory for the purpose of 
listening to tariff' and reciprocity arguments. 

Now my democratic farmer be honest with us, you are 
not pinched much by our tariff. To be sure if you are an 
Iowa farmer you would like to see the tariff taken off 
lumber, so would we and, if it were not for making con- 
cessions to other states that would be detrimental to Iowa 
to more than equal the benefit derived from lowering 
the tariff on lumber, we would be most heartily in favor 
of lowering the tariff. Please do not charge all this 
high price on lumber to the tariff as the tariff has re- 
mained the same while the price of lumber has been 
steadily advancing. 

The politician tells us we must have tariff legislation, 
the millions are accumulating so rapidly at Washington 
that an addition must be built to the United States treas- 
ury perhaps at a cost of half a million dollars. 

Five hundred thousand dollars the amount the con- 
gressman from the seventh congressional district of Iowa 
hopes to secure for a public building in Des Moines would 
give us two counties in this district of as good road as 
were ever trodden by the feet of man. Roads that with 
little repairing would be here to improve the temper and 
sweeten the disposition of our children's children. 
• We do not want to be misunderstood what the congress- 
man from the seventh congressional district of Iowa is 
doing is just what every congressman in the United 
States is trjdng to do. Get as large an appropriation as 
possible for the largest town in his district. 

We have told you how this work could be accomplished 
without the outlay of a single dollar of the farmer's 
money or a single minute of his time. 

To our knowledge for over twenty years, railroad com- 



14 farmers' friend 



panies have been willing and anxious to haul gravel or 
other material for road improvement for less than half 
the regular freight rates. 

Not only are they willing to haul this material but on 
some roads they will allow the car to stand at some con- 
venient crossing in the country until the next train comes 
along and takes the car to the first station. 

The cost of hauling this material and locating it at 
convenient places would to be sure diminish the cost of 
putting the material on the road but this would have to 
go towards paying for the hauling by the railroad com- 
pany. 

There are already many miles of good roads and too, 
if the reader of this article happens to live in a section 
of his state where stone or gravel is plentiful, he will 
say we have figured the cost entirely too high and if he 
happens to be in a section where there are little of either 
he will say we have underestimated the cost, to such we 
wish to say the writer of this article has been in nearly 
every county in the state of Iowa and in nearly every 
section of the west central states and he feels reasonably 
safe in the estimates he has given you. 

In certain parts of these western states gravel is very 
scarce but stone plentiful. Within a distance of fifty 
miles to any part of the west central states and over half 
of the territory of these states can be found stone enough 
to macadamize every foot of these roads. Where it was 
the vote of the people and decision of the Board of Super- 
visors that a stone crusher could be used to better advan- 
tage than to imj3ort gravel into the county let them pur- 
chase a stone crusher. 

We are in favor of every convict in jail or prison being 
supplied with the necessary tools for breaking rock to be 
used on our public roads. 

Every county pays hundreds of dollars every year for 
board for criminals and gets nothing in return. 

Suppose the cost of hauling a car load of rock into a 
county, even at half rates, equaled the amount received 
for the rock when crushed which possibly would be the 
result in some counties while in others it would not equal 



I;t 



farmers' friend 15 



half what could be gotten for the crushed rock. Never- 
theless our object is not so much to get the rock crushed 
as it is to diminish the number of petty criminals. And 
by reducing the number of petty criminals would in time 
materially diminish the whole number of criminals. 

What is the object of sending a man to prison or to 
jail? One object is to reform him. Another is to make 
an example by which others may profit. We firmly be- 
lieve that a man on a rock-pile crushing rock for ten days 
for the benefit of the county would make a better exam- 
ple and do more towards lessening petty crimes than 
thirty days of idleness would with the average criminal. 
There would be a saving of two-thirds of the board be- 
sides giving the culprit ten days of honest work. 

We do not know from experience, but from observation 
it does not seem to be very humiliating to the average 
law breaker to stay a short time in jail. If he were put 
in plain view with a stone hammer in his hand and com- 
pelled to labor for his daily bread we believe it would do 
much more towards reforming him. Sentence a man to 
jail so many days or months and diminish that time for 
good service or increase it for poor service the same as 
is now done in our j^risons. 

Do not understand us to say this law should apply only 
to jails. One of the questions agitated in many states 
today is, ^'what to do with the manufactured products of 
our prisons"? There is a fierce opposition to their em- 
ployment in any kind of labor that will compete with out- 
side mechanics. 

Here is an opportunity to employ them on work that 
competes with nobody. In the state of Iowa the prisons 
are located in a section of country where rock is very 
plentiful. Don't you believe that the rock pile with a 
few good living examples upon it would do more towards 
reducing the county board bill and benefit the farmer 
more than it would to get into a mixup with reciprocity 
and tariff just at these, the most prosperous times this 
country has ever experienced? 

What this country needs is road legislation not tariff 
legislation. Let us have some road legislation in order 



16 farmers' friend 



that we may be able to get out to hear the tariff reformer 
when the time comes — and come it must in the no dis- 
tant future. Until the roads were taken away from local 
administration in England all of the efforts to improve 
the roads miscarried and millions of dollars expended on 
the highways were wasted. So too, it is in this country 
today, though in Europe advantage has been taken of 
experience and the roads are largely under the Central 
Authority. 

Now we hear some good neighbor say, ''The cost is too 
great for the Central Government", but that same neigh- 
bor had nothing to say when he read of congress in a 
single session making appropriations amounting to over 
one thousand million dollars. But when one of the best 
states in the union wants the comparatively insignificant 
sum of seventeen millions to make her roads the best 
roads in the civilized world, somebody says it is too much. 
When this same good farmer read of a canal being put 
through the Isthmus of Panama at a cost of two hundred 
millions of dollars, he had not a word to say. Yet when 
Iowa asks for one twelfth of this amount he thinks it's 
too much to ask of the Central Government. With six 
hundred millions of dollars in the United States treasury 
— a part of it there to remain as long as this government 
stands — why is Iowa not entitled to seventeen millions of 
it for improving her public highways? 

Again we hear some good neighbor say, "We need it 
there to protect us in time of war". Let me ask 3^ou how 
much money was in the treasury at the beginning of the 
civil war"? If this, the greatest war in the history of the 
world, could be successfully fought with an empty treas- 
ury why do you want such an enormous amount of money 
in the treasury! Do you think we are going to have a 
greater war? Do not think we favor depleting the treas- 
ury at Washington. We do think they could manage 
to get along for a few years with a deposit of one hundred 
millions and let us have our share >ot the five hundred 
millions. 

Our politicians tell us the money is accumulating so 
rapidly it will be but a short time until the treasury will 



farmers' friend 17 



be filled again. We farmers will every one of us make a 
solemn vow to be good to every foreigner and every 
neighbor until the strong box at Washington is filled 
again. 

Again we hear some good neighbor say, ''It is a bad 
plan as a general rule, to help those that will not help 
themselves ' '. Then if that be true let the farmer agree 
to do so much of the work. 

Let us take it on the Carnegie library plan. In case 
a township does a certain amount of the work, then a 
certain amount of funds will be furnished to finish the 
work. This would be a most excellent plan as each town- 
ship could be required to do the same amount of work 
regardless of the amount remaining to be done. Then 
one township could not complain that they were com- 
pelled to do more than their neighbors. 

Again we hear some good village merchant say, "What 
are they going to do for us". The good roads are a still 
greater benefit to the merchant. We have never heard 
this disputed and we are not going to take time or space 
to answer it, but if any merchant thinks this, just men- 
tion it to some good farmer and he will with either brain 
or muscle have you acknowledge you were mistaken in- 
side 'of three minutes. 

Where is the farmer benefited? It is a saying as old 
as the Government itself that the hauling and the mar- 
keting of the produce and the hauling home of the fuel, 
lumber, tile and other numberless things for the farm 
are harder upon the horses than the actual farm work. 
As it is today the farmer is unable to haul his product 
to market during bad weather and that is the very per- 
iod when he has the most leisure time to do such work. 
After a heavy rain is a very poor time for a farmer to 
try to accomplish much on the farm but with good roads 
it would be a most excellent time to attend to business. 
The expense of keepiner extra horses, the time needlessly 
spent on the roads, the time spent unemployed on account 
of the bad condition of the roads, the breakage of bug- 
gies, wagons and harnesses. These would more than 
pay the interest on every dollar expended on the roads. 



18 farmers' friend 



There is no gamble, no guess, no risk in this kind of de- 
velopment. We need road legislation. Following is an 
article taken from our home paper : 

FIFTY MILLION FOR RIVERS. 



Waterways Convention Asks fob Permanent Appropriation. 



Washington, Dec. 8, 1906. — ^President Roosevelt told the delegates to 
thie national rivers and harbors convention who called on him at the 
white house that he would consult with the leaders in congress, and 
expressed the hope that something definite and effective could be done 
in the way of increased appropriations for the improvement of the 
nation's waterways. Albert Bettinger of Cincinnati, the spokesman 
for the convention, tiold the president that the convention suggested 
regular annual appropriations of not less than $50,000,000 to replace 
the "hitherto desultory and inadeuate appropriations" for the im- 
provement of the waterways and to place their prosecution on a busi- 
ness basis, insuring their completion within a reasonable length of 
time. 

Fifty millions of dollars asked for the purpose of im- 
proving the nation's waterways. Not a single appro- 
priation but an annual appropriation. 

Did you ever read of where a delegation of farmers 
called upon the President and asking him to recommend 
an appropriation of any kind for the benefit of the wes- 
tern farmer? Our President says he is in faver of a 
"square deal". If such is true — and we believe it is — 
why would it not be a good plan to send a good farmers' 
delegation down to Washington; have them inform the 
President that we farmers have been reading for these 
many years of the fifty, hundred and two hundred million 
dollar appropriations, and thought we would be patient, 
our time would surely come. But patience has ceased to 
be a virtue when we read that an addition had to be 
builded at a probable cost of five hundred thousand dol- 
lars to store the nation's surplus wealth. When the del- 
egates to the national rivers and harbors convention 
called upon the President he said he would lay the mat- 
ter before congress. We farmers have no need of bur- 
dening the President. We can lay this matter before 



farmers' friend ■ 19 



our own congressmen and in such a way that they would 
never return home until they had made us a fair, just 
and reasonable appropriation for the constructing of 
permanent highways. Legislators move as they are 
moved by the powers behind the throne. It is a perplex- 
ing wonder that a million farmers can stand by so meekly 
while a ring of speculators dole out to them half or 
quarter pay of the earnings of their own labor. The far- 
mer is well aware of the fact that he pays more for the 
same machinery manufactured here in the United States 
than does the Mexican, Canadian, or any of the coun- 
tries of South America or of any other foreign countries. 
Yet he murmurs not, for the politician tells him it is to 
protect home interests and true it is we must protect 
our laboring classes. The farmer is willing to protect 
them but if after the treasury is full then he begins to 
think he ought to have a little of that accumulated wealth 
sent back. It is his money, he is entitled to the benefit 
of it. That building an addition to the treasury is the 
straw that is breaking the camel's back. 

There is surely a crying need that the brawny sons of 
toil here in the United States get into a brown study and 
do some solid thinking. If the farmer does not soon de- 
mand his rights some future poet will be singing of our 
farmers as Goldsmith did of the Deserted Village. 

"Ill fares the land to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 
Princes and lords may flourish and may fade, 
A breath can make them as a breath has made 
But a bold peasantry, a country's pride, 
When onoe destroyed can never be supplied." 



Following is an article clipped from a recent magazine : 

WHAT WE OWE TO AGRICULTURE. 

"In this country the agricultural interests, including the number of 
people engaged' and the amount of capital invested in them, are equal 
to all others combined; and this being true, they are certainly entitled 
to the good will and God-speed, and to all the assistance and comfort 
that every man in the state and nation can give them. We will always, 



20 farmers' friend 



so far as I can see, be an agricultural nation; and if this is so, how 
can we better serve every man, woman and child than by fostering as 
far as possible the one interest that is equal to all other interests com- 
bined. The first step is to educate practically the farmer to follow his 
business in a ibusiness-like way that will bring him a reasonable, 
and profitable return." — J. J. Hill, President Great Northern Railway. 

If President Hill who draws a salary of fifty thousand 
dollars a year would have added that we must also teach 
him the needs of his state and how those needs may be 
supplied and the needs of his county and of his township 
and how these needs may be supplied, we think it would 
have been a valuable adjunct to the valuable article he 
wrote to tickle the farmer's ear. 

The farmer is not grumbling about the tariff. We 
have heard more grumbling about the poor roads in a 
single day than we have during our whole life time about 
tariff and reciprocity with the possible exceptions of 
when some office seeker comes along looking for public 
office. 

We are not finding fault with the farmer because he 
condemns the poor roads. Many a farmer has lost his 
most valuable horse simply because he was obliged to 
abuse the poor brute to get it to pull an unreasonable 
amount in order that he might get home with the neces- 
sary supplies for his family. 

Let the farmers demand an annual appropriation and 
demand it in no uncertain way and we will soon have 
roads that will put the builders of the roads of old Eng- 
land to shame. The true way for the farmers to meas- 
ure men is not by their political views or their official 
position, but by their work. The work is a thing that 
can be seen and measured, the motive cannot. If any 
man holds an official office and champions the agricul- 
turist's interests, he is the man for the farmer to sup- 
port. 



School Consolidation* 



Comparison made between the cost of the present sub- 
district plan and the consolidated school as given on the 
preceding page. 

The writer wishes to state that these figures and esti- 
mates are made after careful investigation of the costs 
of consolidated schools in Iowa and adjoining states. The 
chief and possibly the only just objection to the consol- 
idated schools as we now have them is, "too far to haul 
the children". This objection is made where the whole 
township has been consolidated. If you will make an 
examination of the diagram given on this page you 





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The Cross indicates location of sub-districts 
The Square indicates location of consolidated school. 
The Large Square indicates children living within 2 nniles of consoli- 
dated school. 

will see that no pupil can live a greater distance than 
five miles from the central school building. By this plan 
we consolidate six of the nine schools ; the three on the 
north consolidate with the three on the south of the ad- 
joining township. 

There are in the state of Iowa 3661 schools that have 
an average of from one to ten pupils or the average of 
the entire number of schools is five and one-half. We 
also have 4410 schools with an average of from eleven to 
twenty. But the average for the entire number is four- 



22 



farmers' friend 



teen and one-fourth. It would be entirely unfair to sup- 
pose ithat you would find many townships that have the 
maximum average. Let us suppose that three of the 
schools we wish to unite have an average of five and one- 
half, the other three an average of fourteen and one- 
fourth. This would make an average of fifty-nine pupils 
in the six consolidated schools. 

Let us suppose this only represents two-thirds of the 
pupils in the district that would attend school in the fall 




The number below in each County shows the number of tcacheri in each county who have attended 
only district school or schools below the accredited high school. The number above shows the number 
holding third grade certificates in each county in Iowa. z;(2 teachers in Iowa that have bad no exper- 
ience or special training. 

and spring and only half that would attend during the 
winter. It is unreasonable to suppose that these children 
could be so situated in two-thirds of a township that four 
haulers each starting with his first pupil the farthest 
from the central school could drive on an average farther 
than seven miles, gathering up his fourteen pupils. It 
is understood that no driver is supposed to go out of his 
way to get a pupil after getting within two miles of the 
central school. 

There are more families in the state of Iowa sending 
two or more children than there are sending one and as 
many sending none as there are sending children. The 




SUB-DISTRICT SCHOOL. 





SUE-DISTRICT SCHOOL. 



farmers' friend 23 



driver will then make an average of ten stops from five 
of which he will get five pupils and from the other five 
he will get ten pupils. We consider it just and fair to 
assume these ten stops will be made during a drive of 
seven miles. 

You must bear in mind at the present time neighbors 
living just across the road from each other send their 
children to different schools. This would not be the case 
with the consolidated school. No two drivers would be 
supposed to travel the same road. This gives each 
driver seven miles of road, farms on either side, to make 
up his. fourteen pupils to say nothing of the children that 
would be within the two miles, living on other roads than 
the one traveled by the driver. 

"We are aware of the fact that there are several schools 
in each county that have closed for want of pupils. We 
plso know of several townships in the state of Iowa where 
\..ie competent teacher could teach the entire number of 
pupils that attend during the fall and spring terms. The 
only safe and fair way is to figure on the average town- 
ships. We will sometimes find two or three adjoining 
districts having an average of twenty or more pupils. 

Another objection raised is, "It is too expensive." 
Let us figure the cost of running the central school for 
eight months. We expect to have four haulers and two 
teachers during the spring and fall and three teachers 
during the winter. Two teachers at $40.00 each per 
month is $640.00; One teacher four months at $50.00 is 
$200.00; Four haulers at $30.00 per month is $960.00; 
Total $1800.00. For the same time let us hire six teach- 
ers at forty dollars per month; this would amount to 
$1920.00. One hundred twenty dollars more than it takes 
to run the consolidated school every year. 

There is not a farmer that reads this article but that 
will agree with us when we say that the expense of keep- 
ing up, equipping, and heating this central building will 
be one-third less than is required to do the same in six 
sub-districts. 

Another objection raised is, "Too much time required 
on the road." After a thorough investigation we find 
the average rate of miles for haulers to travel per hour 



24 farmers' friend 



in Iowa, and also in other states is six miles. There are 
times when they drive seven and again there are times 
when they cannot drive more than five. In order to suit 
the pessimist we must state that there are times when you 
could not go at all. We also stated that the average 
attendance was not more than two-thirds of the pupils 
in attendance. It would not be unfair to suppose that 
part of this was due to bad roads. If you will read what 
those say that have had experience, they will tell you 
the average attendance is much better in the consolidated 
school than it was in the sub-district. The average time 
for a driver to make his drive is seventy minutes. The 
average time for a boy or girl of six years of age to 
walk one mile is thirty-five minutes. A farmer living 
two miles from the school as is often the case would find 
that it takes seventy minutes for his child to walk home. 

The time to get to the consolidated school is exactly 
the same or seventy minutes, but, while it is necessary 
for the driver to go to the home after the pupil, it is 
not necessary to haul them nearer than the cross-road 
in returning them. This would only make a five mile 
drive in the evening and get the children, that have the 
greatest distance to come, home before they could walk 
home if the distance were two miles. While we are giv- 
ing an average of seven miles drive each for four drivers 
we realize there are nearly four thousand schools in Iowa 
that only have an average of five and one-half pupils. 
These possibly all coming from two or three families and 
possibly within three miles of the school. 

We also realize that possibly in a district of twenty- 
five pupils there could be two-thirds of them farther than 
two miles. This district, if one hauler was obliged to 
haul all of them, might necessitate a drive of ten miles to 
the school and would require at least two hours, as a team 
would travel much slower the second hour than the first. 
This is the exception and would seldom happen and if 
the routes were properly arranged we doubt if it would 
occur at all. Even in this case there would be no need of 
any of the children being on the road more than one hour 
going home. 



FAEMERS' FRIEND 25 



We have now given you our best judgment of the cost 
of running a central school ; one that we know would be 
better for you and better for your children. We have 
given you the average and we have given you the ex- 
tremes. We can see no hardship in either case. 

The question is now asked, "How about the farmer 
now living close to a sub-district school!" To this ques- 
tion we wish to reply that our laws are or should be made 
and schools located where the greatest good may be done 
for the greatest number. 

If many years ago it were thought that it was most 
convenient to locate the schools every two miles, and 
now know that is not the best plan, it is the duty of the 
public to see that the schools are located where the great- 
est good may be done the greatest number. 

There is not on an average of one district school in ten 
in the state of Iowa where the school during the severe 
winter weather is called at nine o'clock. We have plenty 
of evidence, as every farmer that reads this article well 
knows, that more children arrive at the schoolhouse after 
nine o'clock than there are that get to the school by nine. 

Again we wish to make the assertion that fully eighty 
per cent of the district schools of Iowa are not com- 
fortable for children before ten o'clock and some of them 
are not comfortable during the entire day. Few farmers 
go to the schoolhouse to investigate the conditions of 
these schools. Small children sitting next to the stove 
with a temperature above one hundred degrees and the 
large boys and girls in the remote parts of the room, 
with the temperature a little above the freezing point, 
is not the best of conditions for the tax payers to expect 
to get value received for wages paid teachers. 

There are so many advantages in the consolidated 
school over the old sub-district plan that we do not expect 
to comment on each. Think of the children that go to 
school with wet feet and wet clothing and are obliged 
to sit in the school room possibly a half day in that con- 
dition. If for no other reason than from a standpoint 
of health the consolidated school far surpasses the old 
sub-district. 

Now some one informs us, ''You cannot hire haulers 



26 farmers' friend 



for thirty dollars per month as mail carriers get sixty. ' ' 
Twenty-five miles per day is the average route for the 
mail carrier, twenty-six days for a month. Twelve miles 
per day is the average drive for the driver of a wagon 
for the consolidated school. Twenty days constitute the 
school month. The mail carrier is busy early in the 
morning sorting his mail, likewise in the evening. The 
mail driver must stop at almost every house on the 
twenty-five mile drive. During the four winter months 
there would be no difficulty in getting plenty of haulers 
and in summer as a rule you could get men that were 
too old or unable to work on the farm. 

We must accept the evidence we have and that gives 
us an average of thirty dollars per month. True, in 
some districts of only three or four children, arrange- 
ments can often be made where the children are conveyed 
for from three to five dollars per month. Sometimes 
during the winter one of the largest boys takes a team 
and hauls those on his road gratis. It is the custom to 
have barns at all consolidated schools for the convenience 
of all those that desire to do this. 

Then there are districts that it would cost forty dol- 
lars per month. Again we wish to state the only fair 
way to estimate these things is to find the average and 
this we have tried to do in every case. 

Many a farmer believing that the district school did 
not furnish sufficient training for his boy or girl, has 
sent then to town with the hope of advancing their chil- 
dren's interest, but to their surprise when too late they 
learn that this boy would have been a better man and 
his girl a better woman if he had only have kept them 
home a few years longer, 

A boy or girl coming from the country into the town 
just at the most active time of his life and at an age when 
he needs the most careful guidance and assistance of the 
most anxious and painstaking of parents is a very seri- 
ous proposition. The writer has as a teacher time and 
again talked to boys and girls from the country who were 
placed under his instruction, warning them about being 
in too great a hurry to become acquainted with the young 
folks of the town who made it a business to ''run the 



Ii 


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-e^^.^^. - ^■-^^.■:^ ^£ 


1 



BTATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE BUILDINGS, LEXINGTOxN, KENTUCKY 



FAEMEES' FRIEND 27 



streets nights". Has in one or two instances advised 
the parents to take the child home as the evil he was 
learning from the associates he had out of school were 
doing him more injury than we could do him good. We 
have consulted with other town and city superintendents 
and find our experience was not at variance with theirs. 

The consolidation of the district schools in our opinion 
would solve the country school problem. It would give 
the country schools all the advantages now enjoyed by 
the town schools and none of their disadvantages. 

There is a strong and growing sentiment favorable to 
consolidation and transportation in the west central 
states. As we have already given many advantages and 
benefits of consolidated schools, following this article 
will be the opinion and experience of some of the leading 
educators of the United States. Also the facts as viewed 
by parents and teachers where consolidation of schools 
has been in operation for many years. 

We now wish to express our views on a new phase of 
the subject, 

MANUAL TRAINING. 

The interest in manual training in public schools is 
growing. The one chief thing that prevents the rapid 
introduction of the subject into the schools of our cities 
is the lack of suitable rooms. This would not be the 
difficulty in the consolidated school as the basement would 
make a most excellent place for their work. No doubt 
many at first thought, will object to manual training in 
our country schools, but upon reflection will re-consider 
and agree with us when we say this is the first of all 
places that it should be taught. 

Very few of our city neighbors make much use of the 
valuble instruction they get along this line. In fact, 
trouble is about the only thing that a large per cent of 
our city boys know how to make. 

Freely would we like to exchange our last year's in- 
formation on the subject of Latin for what we could be 
taught in a manual training school in one week. How 
to drive a nail, saw a board and hang a door. Manual 
training is mental training through the hand and eye. 
So far as knowledge goes there is not an educator, a sue- 



28 farmers' friend 



cessful professional or business man that does not most 
heartily approve of manual training in our public schools. 
Manual training is sanctioned by farmers everywhere, 
the only question they ask is, is it possible to be accom- 
plished! 

The mechanical drawing can be taught by the teacher 
of the consolidated school just as it is taught by our city 
school teachers. Mechanical drawing well taught is no 
doubt half the battle. Why would not the eye be as well 
trained and the judgment as well developed in this work 
as in the drawing that is done in the average high school 
with but those motives in view? 

If two days out of every week, for three months were 
devoted to practical work in carpentry, harness making 
and working in iron, admitting all living in the consoli- 
dated district to attend between the age of fifteen and 
twenty-one ; let these three months be between December 
and March, the instruction should consist of such mechan- 
ical work as is usually necessary to all classes of people. 
No attempt should be made to teach any particular trade. 

Manual training will do as much to broaden the intelli- 
gence and form habits of attention, perseverance and 
patience as will the quite common Latin lesson that has 
been copied from an older pupil's note book or taken 
from a "key". 

Did you ever know of a boy that did not like to work 
with tools? What a boy likes to do that he will do well. 
The school must become more socialized in its organiza- 
tion, methods and course of study. The most important 
activities of the life into which the child must go should 
be transferred to the life of the school. Manual training 
sets free those natural and valuable impulses which in- 
duce the child to try his strength and skill in a large num- 
ber of various activities. At the same time it turns those 
activities and tendencies, which may, if left unused, lead 
the boy to destruction and crime, into useful channels. 
It is well known by every parent and every experienced 
school teacher that the most critical time in a young boy's 
life is from the age of fifteen to twenty-one. It is a very 
common saying, "if you can tide him over a few years 
more he will be all right", or, "if you can hold him 



farmers' friend 29 



down", or words to that effect, "you will have no diffi- 
culty after that ' '. Some people even go so far as to say, 
^'a boy must sow his wild oats". 

It is simply surplus energy without any proper and 
beneficial channel in which it may be disposed, and we 
firmly believe if you had some interesting, pleasan.t and 
useful occupation for our boys during the wintry months 
the crimes of our country would be materially lessened. 
It is during the time of idleness and congregation of boys 
that the habits of the worst are learned, the thoughts 
of the vilest put into execution. 

If only viewed from a financial standpoint, there is not 
a question of doubt but that a manual training school 
would yield far greater returns than the money expended 
in equipping and maintaining them. With a small shop 
upon the farm, nine-tenths of the money now paid for 
wood, iron, and harness repairs could be done at home, 
done during a time when the young man for lack of some- 
thing interesting to do would be off to the neighboring 
village 

It is a fact sanctioned by many parents that boys take 
particular pride in working at this kind of work. We 
can scarcely estimate the time and expense this would 
save the farmer during the busy season. Farmers all 
know much time and expense would be saved if things 
in need of repair were looked after at the proper time. 

Manual training is now carried on in many of the East- 
ern and Southern states. Nothing but the most satis- 
factory reports come from those that visit them. Nearly 
all our leading colleges and normal schools have, during 
the last few years, added a manual training department 
to their schools. 

Not only will the teachers be able to give instruction 
in the subjects usually taught but also in manual train- 
ing. There will, no doubt, as is now the case in many of 
our cities, be from thirty to fifty minutes each day de- 
voted to some kind of manual training; taught through 
all the grades. Such as the making of simple and use- 
ful articles; becoming acquainted with the handling of 
tools, etc. In the lower grades, paper folding and cut- 



30 FAEMERS' FRIEND 



ting, weaving and sewing, raffia braiding and weaving 
into baskets and mats. 

As they pass on through the grades the work will be- 
come a little more difficult; such as articles made from 
thin wood, by use of rule, pencil, compass, knife and fret 
saw; sewing, etc. The boys' and girls' work are practi- 
cally the same in the lower grades. We also have con- 
nected with nearly all of our leading colleges a domestic 
science course where lessons in cookery, and household 
economy are taught. 

Some may think this is going to take too much time 
from the other and less important studies in the higher 
grades. It is a fact that the change of work will rest the 
pupil and when he goes back to his study he will accom- 
plish more than if compelled to continue at the same 
kind ofwork. Did you put in your full time studying 
when you attended school ? 

''But won't it cost more?" Yes, we know cost is de- 
termined by supply and demand and there is going to be 
great demand for these teachers. In a few years the 
supply will become greater and in proportion reduce 
the wages. We don't believe the time will ever come 
when you can get a young lowan equipped and qualified 
for school work, to go into the school room for less wages 
than farmers are willing to pay a smart teamster or 
active wood chopper, though a normal school were in 
session under every shade tree. 

The farmer should not hope to keep his boy on the 
farm unless there is some inducement to keep him there. 
So long as we fail to provide a measure for the healthy 
expenditure of these pent-up activities we shall be 
troubled with the boys who frequent the street corners 
and fill the reform school for want of proper direction. 

The leading arguments in favor of consolidation are: 

1. It permits a better grading of the schools and classification of 
pupils. Consolidation allows pupils to be placed where they can work 
to the best advantage; the various subjects of study to be wisely se- 
lected and correlated, and more time to be given to recitations. 

2. It affords an opportunity for thorough work in special branches, 
such as drawing, music, and nature study. It also allows an enrich- 
ment in other lines. 

3. It opens the doors to more weeks of schooling and to schools of a 



farme rs' friend . 31 

higher grade. The people in villages almost invariably lengthen the 
school year and support a high school for advanced pupils. 

4. It insures th« employment and retention of better teachers. 
Teachers in small ungraded schools are usually of limited education, 
training, or experience, or are past the age of competition. The salaries 
paid in cities and villages allow a wide range in the selection of 
teachers. 

5. It makes the work/ of the specialist and supervisor far more 
effective. Their plans and efforts can all be concentrated into some- 
thing tangible. 

6. It adds the stimulating influences of large classes, with the re- 
sulting enthusiasm and generous rivalry. The discipline and training 
Obtained are invaluable. 

7. It affords the broader companionship and culture that come from 
association, 

8. It results in a better attendance of pupils, as proved by experi- 
ence in townships where the plan has been thoroughly tried. 

9. It leads to better school buildings, better equipment, a larger 
supply of books, charts, maps, and apparatus. All these naturally fol- 
low a concentration of people, wealth, and effort, and aid in making 
good schools. The large expenditure implied in these better appoint- 
ments is wise economy, for the cost per pupil is really much less than 
the cost in small and widely separated schools. 

10. And, again, it quickens public interest in the schools. Pride in 
the quality of the work done secures a greater sympathy and better 
fellowship throughout the township. 

Finally, by transporation the farm again as of old be- 
comes the ideal place in which to bring up children, 
enabling them to secure the advantages of centers of 
population and spend their evenings and holiday time 
in the country in contact with nature and plenty of work, 
instead of idly loafing about town. 

We are in the midst of an industrial revolution. The 
principle of concentration has touched our farming, our 
manufacturing, our mining, and our commerce. There 
are those who greatly fear the outcome. There were 
those who prophesied disaster and even the destruction 
of society on the introduction of labor-saving machinery. 
We have adjusted ourselves to the new conditions thus 
introduced. Most of us believe- that we shall again ad- 
just ourselves to the new industrial conditions. The 
changes in industrial and social conditions make neces- 
sary similar changes in educational affairs. The watch- 
word of today is concentration, the dominant force is 
centripetal. Not only for the saving of expense but for 
the better quality of the work must we bring our pupils 



32 farmers' friend 



together. No manufacturing business could endure a 
year run on a plan so extravagant as the district system 
of schools. 

IN OTHER STATES. 

Consolidation and transportation is a settled policy in 
some of the eastern states and is being adopted to a 
greater or less extent in many of the western states, 
where it is rapidly growing in favor. 

KANSAS. 

Frank Nelson, state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion in Kansas, writes: 

"The consolidation of schools and the transportation of pupils to and 
from school is one of the really important educational movements of 
the times. Here in Kansas we are working along this line with much 
success. The last legislature enacted a law providing for the consoli- 
dation of school districts and the transportation of pupils. It is the 
first law of its kind ever enacted in this state and is giving great satis- 
faction. The people are warm supporters of the consolidation of 
schools because they realize that it gives them better schools, better 
courses of study, better teachers, longer terms and a deeper interest 
in the work. 

"Under this plan of school administration parents are able to give 
their children a good education right at home at a very moderate ex- 
pense. It is the duty of the state to bring the best and' largest educa- 
tional advantages within easy reach of the people. This is done by 
building up strong graded schools in the community. 

"I am a firm believer in the consolidation of schools and the trans- 
portation of pupils. This movement is destihed to revolutionize our 
entire school system and to bring greater blessings to all the people." 

WISCONSIN. 

L. D. Harvey, state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion of Wisconsin, says : 

"I believe this is one of the most important movements in recent 
years for the betterment of school conditions in certain communities. 
The smaU country school with almost invariable accompaniment of 
poorly prepared teachers has little or no value. It is expensive, when 
the number of persons in attendance is taken into consideration. The 
consolidation of districts results in better organization of the school, in 
stronger teaching force, and in taking pupils out of the isolation which 
necessarily accompanies the small school. 

"One of the most important things in the education of the child is 
that he shall come in contact with a goodly number of children of his 
own age. Without this contact he is missing one of the most important 



farmers' friend 33 



elements of an education. Experience has shown that consolidation 
may be effected and pupils transported without an increase in the ex- 
penses for school purposes in the district covered. 

"The people in our state are very much interested in this matter 
and in many localities are taking steps to effect consolidation and pro- 
vide for transportation of pupils." 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

In Massachusetts the system was adopted many years 
ago and has been growing in popularity. In ten years 
the state's expenditures for conveyance of pupils in- 
creased from $30,000 to nearly 142,000. The report of 
the state superintendent of public instruction in Massa- 
chusetts in 1901 gives the following account of the work- 
ing of the consolidation system in the town of Warwick : 

"Six years ago Warwick maintained nine schools twenty-four weeks 
per year. The average attendance of pupils in the township was eighty- 
seven. Teachers' wages in the eight outside schools were five dollars 
per week, in the center school six dollars per week. With few ex- 
ceptions, the teachers were young and without experience, educated 
in the district schools. Some were under sixteen years of age, — one 
term a pupil in a school, the next term a teacher. Occasionally, in 
recent years, a teacher of marked ability and successful experience 
has been employed, but the number of schools made it impossible to 
pay wages that would retain the services of well-qualified teachers many 
terms. The schools were poorly supplied with books and materials. 

"Now all of the pupils in the townships are in three rooms of one 
modern, well-lighted, heated, ventilated building, pleasantly situated 
in the center of the township. The rooms are supplied with good black- 
boards, and with books and appliances for the use of pupils. The 
school has three teachers, — ^normal school graduates of exceptional 
aJbility. The average wage paid is nine dollars a week, the school year 
is thirty-six weeks. Special teachers of music and drawing visit the 
school each week. Pupils are conveyed to the center union school from 
distant parts of the townships. The average attendance last year 
was 96. 

State Superintendent Frank L. Jones, of Indiana, in 
his report for 1900, says : 

"The great evil of the small rural school lies in it non-social char- 
acter. It is wholly unable to furnish each of its pupils that educative 
influence that comes from association with many of the same age and 
same degree of advancement; it can not have, in many classes, ei ough 



34: FAEMERS' FRIEND 



of honest and helpful competition to establish a standard to which 
many a bright pupil would raise himself, and fails therefore to bring 
from him that supreme effort which develops and ennobles, and which 
comes only from a vigorous contest with his fellows. The humdrum 
and monotony of a recitation in a one-pupil class is discouraging to 
both pupil and teacher. Not only is the mental work of the school thus 
impaired, but the lack of enough pupils to organize a game on the 
schoolhouse yard prevents adequate exercise and tends to make mor- 
bid, selfish and pessimistic all who live in its atmosphere — the deadly 
quiet and inactivity of the small school kills the spirit. Professor Hins- 
dale makes a clear statement in the following words: 

" 'The importance of this element in the rural school problem be- 
comes obvious at a glance. In populous districts fewer schools and 
districts relatively are called for, while, at the same time, owing to 
the larger numbers and the more varied attainments of the pupils, the 
system can be more fully developed. The school and the home, under 
the present system, can not be far apart; otherwise children will at- 
tend the school with difficulty, or not at all. Once more, the interest 
and enthusiasm of pupils and teachers depend directly upon the number 
and the ability of the pupils present. For the majority of children 
individual instruction, or anything closely approaching it, is not to be 
commended. Aristotle condemned such instruction on political ground's. 
It may also be condemned on pedagogical grounds. Children need the 
inspiration of numbers. Besides, numbers contain ethical value. As 
a rule, you can no more make a good school out of a half dozen pupils 
than you can make a powerful galvanic battery with one or two pairs 
of plates.' 

"The per capita cost in these small schools is not only much too 
large, but Is continually increasing. In 1879 the cost of education per 
capita was as follows: 

In townships $ 6.21 

In towns 5.21 

In cities 7.48 

"In 1899, twenty years later, the cost was: 

In townships (per capita) ?10.50 

In towns (per capita) 11.10 

In cities (per capita) 7.07 

"These tables are of more than usual interest on this point, and 
pnesent to the taxpayer a strong argument for a solution of the prob- 
lem of the small school. It will he observed at once that the per 
capita cost of education is constantly increasing in the country and 
towns and decreasing in the cities. This condition in the rural school 
arises wholly from the prevalence of small schools. There were as 
nfany rural schools in 1899 as in 1879, the salaries in the former are 



farmers' friend 35 



not substantially different from those in thei latter, the investments 
in schoolhouses and appliances would about equal, but thie attendance 
in them has constantly decreased. This condition makes necessary an 
expenditure for teachers, fuel, apparatus and repairs for the small 
school of today equal to that of the large one of two decades ago. In 
the towns the increase is due quite largely to the esitablishment and 
equipment of high schools of small enrollment. Nearly all cities show 
congested schools, making necessary many pupils under the direction 
of each teacher, thus reducing the per capita cost. Add to this a saving 
in fuel, repairs, buildings and appliances, and the reduced cost of edu- 
cation in cities is explained." i 

CONNECTICUT. 

The legislature in 1893 authorized the transporation 
of children to and from school at the expense of the town 
(meaning township,) whenever a school shall be discon- 
tinued upon the approval of the school visitors. Within 
seven years about sixty towns took advantage of this, 
uniting schools and transporting the children to the near- 
est schoolhouse. The system has been generally satis- 
factory and has reduced the cost. In 1897-8, eight^^-f our 
schools were closed and the following year, eighty-five. 
The report of the state superintendent says that "ex- 
pense is less than the cost of maintaining schools. The 
result has been : 

"1. To make larger schools and provide desirable classification. 

"2. To make better schools. In some cases the change has been 
very marked, the consolidated school at once taking high rank because 
a good teacher was secured. 

"3. With one exception, the cost has been diminished. 

"4. In every case the attendance has improved. 

"5. Unpunctuality is entirely avoided, for the children must reach 
school on time. 

"The policy of closing schools and transporting children is not 
popular at first. When it has been tried and properly managed it has 
always been approved. 

"There is substantial agreement that the result, financially and edu- 
cationally, has been satisfactory. The most/ emphatic expressions of 
approval come from those who were influenced mainly by the educa- 
tional motives. 

"Childre^ are less exposed to storms and to bad weather and are 
healthier. Atttendance is increased 10 to 20 per cent." 



36 FAKMERS' FRIEND 



Detailed reports from the districts where the system 
has been tried show imif ormly good results and satisfac- 
tion to patrons. 

OHIO. 

Alfred Bayliss, state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion in Illinois, has made a personal investigation of the 
operation of the Ohio plan and his account of it is worth 
careful consideration. Mr. Bayliss says : 

"I have lately seen some excellent examples of the practical work- 
ing out of this plan in the state of Ohio. What has become widely- 
known as the 'Kingsville experiment' was made possible in that state 
by an act which applied to 'any township which by the census of 1890 
had a population of not less than 1,710 nor more than 1,715.' In other 
words, the legislature of Ohio was willing to let the people of Kings- 
ville and vicinity furnish an object lesson for their more conservative 
neighbors, if they were willing to take the chances and foot the bill. 
That village and township, however, proved to be like the man who 
insisted 'that he was not such a fool as he looked.' The daily attend- 
anoe Increased. The cost rper capita diminished. There was a bal- 
ance on the right side of the account of over $1,000 in the first three 
years. As a result the enabling act was made general and the plan is 
spreading. Two very notable examples came under my observation. 
The first was in Gustavus township, Trumbull county. There were 
formerly nine districts in that township, and as many small schools. 
Four years ago the nine districts were consolidated. A frame build- 
ing, with four rooms, was erected at a cost of $3,000. A principal, 
three assistants and a janitor were employed. Nine comfortable, cov- 
ered spring wagons, with drivers under $200 bonds, were engaged to 
convey the children to and from the central school. Before the con- 
solidation the average school attendance in that township was 125. 
Last year it was 144. The school population remains about the same. 
The year preceding the oonsolidation the schools of the township cost 
$2,900. The union school cost, including the wagons, $3,156, an in- 
crease of $256 for the township, but a decrease of $1.29 per pupil on 
the average attendance. 

"The other case is in the adjoining township of Green. The people 
of this township were divided in opinion three years ago. They, there- 
fore, wisely waited for the result of the experiment in Gustavus. After 
observing it two years, they were satisfied. Public opinion crystalized 
in favor of the plan. Last Sieptember the people of this township 
opened a new, steam-heated, well-lighted and ventilated, brick build- 
ing, having six large school rooms, an(J two smaller rooms, one of 
which is set apart for the library. Eight wagons convey the children. 



FARMERS FRIEND 



37 



The principal of the school told me, with pardonable pride, that there 
was a piano coming. Both of these schools do about three years of 
high school work. Public sentiment is no longer divided. 

"The la^t statement should, perhaps, be qualified. In May, 1900, a 
comimittee of two citizens, one for and one against 'consolidation', was 
sent from a township in Warren county, Ohio, to investigate and report 
upon the facts as they found them in Gustavus township. The report, 
signed by both members of the committee, stated that persons known 
to favor the plan were purposely passed by; that fifty-four persons 
were questioned, and their answers were as stated in the report. Of 
that number, forty-three were for, seven against, and four indifferent 
to the plan. Of the seven who declared against it, six were without 
children of school age, and of the four who were indifferent, none had 
children of school age. 

"Of all the fifty-four, we find, said the committee, but one pereon 
with children who was opposed to centralization. I talked with the 
citizens in six or seven country towns in which the plan is in opera- 
tion, in three different counties, and failed to find a single individual 
who did not approve it. 

"Such illustrations could be multiplied. The plan works out. The 
health of children is improved, because of the diminished exposure to 
stormy weather. School attendance is increased, both in regularity 
and in the number of pupils. Tardiness and truancy disappear. The 
school year is lengthened. Better teachers are employed. Teachers 
can be better paid. I asked one little fellow of ten or twelve years how 
he liked the union school. Oh, it's great, he said, to be where some- 
thing is going on. And, perhaps, it is from this widened circle of 
acquaintance, extending beyond the children to the whole community, 
that one of the great benefits is to be derived. The isolation of small 
schools — ten pupils or fewer — is not favorable to intellectual, moral or 
social growth. The young mind grows by contact with other minds, 
and quite as much by contact with those of near its own strength as by 
the influence of stronger ones." 

Mr. G. L. Fletcher, Agent Mass. Board of Education, 
sent out inquiries to school committees and superintend- 
ents of the state, asking for information about their 
experience with consolidation and conveyance. Some of 
the replies received were very significant. It was said 
that the per capita cost of education has been greatly 
reduced. 

"In the year 1893 Seymour Rockwell, the veteran school committee 
man of Montague, said: 

" 'For eighteen years we have had the best attendance from the 



38 PAEMEES' FRIEND 



transported children; no more sickness among them, and no accidents. 
The children like the plan exceedingly. We have saved the town at 
least $600 a year. All these children now attend a well-equipped school- 
house at the center. The schools are graded; everybody is converted 
to the plan. "We encountered all the opposition found anywhere, but 
we asserted our sensible and legal rights, and accomplished the work. 
I see no way of bringing the country schools up but to consolidate 
them, making them worth seeing; then the people will be more likely 
to do their duty by visiting theim.' 

"From another town came this suggestive statement: 
" 'Once when a man wished to sell his farm he advertised, "A school 
near". Now he advertises, "Children conveyed to good schools". Farms 
sell more readily now,' " 

State Superintendent J. F. Riggs of Iowa, in his an- 
nual report, says : 

"From personal inspection! and study of some of the consolidated 
schools in this state, supplemented by the study of reports from other 
states where the system has been longer in operation and is much more 
general, I reach the following conclusions: 

"1. Pupils in consolidated schools very generailly enjoy better 
schodl privileges and are taught by better teachers than under the old 
district plan. 

"2. Where transportation is provided for all pupils the cost of 
maintenance is usually but not always more than under the district 
plan, but the enrollment is so much larger and the attendance so much 
more regular that the increased benefits equal or outrun the increased 
cost ofmaintenance. 

"3. Where consolidation is successfully established', the opposition 
at first engendered gradually disappears and bitter opponents often 
come to be ardent supporters of the new plan when they see the su- 
perior benefits It secures to the children. 

"4. Where transportation is made the fixed policy in any district, 
wagons specially designed for transportation purposes should be owned 
by the district. This will result in the greater comfort of the chil- 
dren and make it easier for the board to secure competent drivers, — 
a matter of the greatest importance. 

"5. Children should seldom, if ever, be required to ride a greater 
distance than five miles. The very long rides are both expensive to the 
district and hard on the children. It follows from this conclusion that 
the civil township is, in general, too large a unit for a school district 
maintaining but one school. The law should authorize the change of 
boundaries between contiguous school townships or between school 
townships and independent districts in such a way that consolidated 



farmers' friend 39 



districts of smaller area than the civil township could be established. 
The size and outline of the consolidated district should be determined 
by the physical features of its area and by the location of the homes to 
be accommodated. The homes on opposite sides of a public highway 
should be in the same district; hence half section lines or quarter sec- 
tion lines, rather than section lines, should in the main separate school 
districts. 

"While an area somewhat smaller than the civil township is pref- 
erable as a permanent school unit, township conaolidation is practic- 
able where the roads are good and the schools are small. 

"6. The consolidated school should in the main be kept in the 
country or in the small country village. The school should be the social 
center of the community. Where one or more country districts are con- 
solidated with a city district, the course of study should be made suffici- 
ently flexible to provide for those children who can attend school only 
during the winter." 



EDUCATION OF THE FAKM BOY AND GIRL. 

* * * Have the advantages for the education of the 
farm boy and girl kept pace with the advancement in 
all other lines of society? Is the little schoolhouse, with 
its poor equipment, with the poorly trained teacher in 
many instances, and with very poor work in the common 
branches sufficient to meet the demands of today for the 
common school education? 

Have we not reached the period in all the central west- 
ern states where nothing short of a well equipped school- 
house, a first-class teacher and a course of study revised 
to meet the demands of the times, are a necessity for 
our children? 

I believe that every farmer who reads this article will 
agree with me that conditions have changed since he was 
a boy, and that it takes a better trained mind to be a suc- 
cessful farmer or business man today than it did even, 
ten years ago. 

It is safe to say that the time has come when the far^ 
mer must have within comparatively easy reach of his 
home a well constructed schoolhouse, thoroughly 
equipped for giving the best of modern education. He 



40 farmers' friend 



ought not to have to send his son or daughter away from 
home to school until at least two years of the work of the 
modern high school has been completed. The farm boy 
and the farm girl should be at home at nights while they 
are getting their general education. These conveniences 
may be had everywhere by the consolidation of schools 
in localities of mutual interests. This has already been 
done to a large extent in Indiana, and the plan is under 
good headway in Iowa and some other western states. 

There is no reason why the farmers should not pro- 
vide these conveniences of education for their children. 
It is nothing more than they are doing to provide them- 
selves with better means of breeding and handling their 
stock or improving their farms, and certainly their chil- 
dren's welfare is of much more concern than any farm 
or stock improvements. * * * 

The new conditions of life on the farm demand im- 
provement in general education for the farm boy or girl. 
It is presumed that the course of study will contain a 
good course in bookkeeping, and facilities should be pro- 
vided for a certain amount of industrial work. The chil- 
dren in the grades should be taught to make various arti- 
cles, such as cardboard modeling, clay modeling, weaving 
of rugs and hammocks, baskets with raffia, reed and wil- 
low, doll houses with raffia furniture and various arti- 
cles that may be easily made under the direction of a 
trained teacher, and both the children of the grades and 
the high school should have access to a shop where they 
may learn to make articles by the use of simple tools. 
This work is not to be carried on with the idea of making 
carpenters or artisans of all, but with the thought in 
view of cultivating a desire and an appreciation for such 
work and the further idea of giving the pupils the oppor- 
tunity to acquire the ability to help themselves and 
thereby to help others. A few hours a week at such 
work as this will prove invaluable to any child. Parents 
have not come to a realization yet how much this indus- 
trial work means to their children. The expense of pro- 
viding this equipment is nominal, compared to the good 
to be received, and the pupils need very little instruction 



farmers' friend 41 



in order to acquire the training it is intended they shall 
secure from such work. * * * * The proper education 
of the farm boy and girl can not be neglected without 
bringing ruin upon the farming communities. If these 
advantages are not provided the farm boys and girls will 
drift away early into other callings. If the right kind 
of schools are provied for the country boys and girls 
they will remain at home until they receive this general 
education, and then if they have gifts in other directions 
it will be time for them to seek special schools. — Pres. 0. 
H. LoNGWELL in Twentieth Century Farmer. 



LAWS AND LEGAL FORMS WHICH EVERY 
FARMER SHOULD KNOW. 

Deeds. — Laws Governing Deeds. — How to write deeds. — 
Warranty Deed. — Form. 

Certificate of acknowledgment. — Quieting Title. 

Mortgages. — Laws Governing Mortgages. — Acknowl- 
edgment. — Recording. — Form. — Assignment of 
Mortgage. — ^^Collection of Mortgage Debt. — Redemp- 
tion of Mortgage. 

Chattel Mortgage. — Form. — Mortgagors ' rights. — Re- 
demption. — Sale Under Statute. 

Landlord and Tenant. — Lease. — Laws Governing Lea- 
ses. — Form of Lease. — How to Write a Lease. 

Contracts. — Laws Governing all Kinds of Contracts. — 
Land Contracts. — Contracts for Laying Tile or 
Building Fence. — A Contract for the Sale of Horses, 
Cattle or Other Personal Property. 

Promissory Notes. — Laws Governing Notes. 

Accounts. — Laws Governing Accounts. 

Exemptions. — Real Estate. — Homesteads. — Personal 
Property. 

Fences. — Wliat Constitutes a Legal Fence. 

Criminal liability. — Estrays. — Estray Notices. — Pay- 
ment of Fees. — Title to Estrays. — Reclaiming Es- 
trays. — Taker Up May Use and Work the Estray. 

Drainage laws of iowa. — Tiling, etc. 



42 FAKMEKS' FEIEND 



HOW TO WEITE A DEED. 

EuLEs: — It must he written or printed on paper or 
parchment. 

2. The names of the parties and place of residence 
are written first. 

3. The property must be fully described. The de- 
scription shoidd be by bounds, or by divisions of United 
States surveys, or by sub-divisions into blocks and lots, 
as shown on the records. 

4. It must express a consideration, also a covenant 
to "warrant and defend" and be signed and sealed by 
the grantor or grantors. 

Caution. — It must be completely written before deliv- 
ery. Numbers should always be written in words fol- 
lowed by figures in parentheses. If the grantor is mar- 
ried, they both should join in the grant and in execution 
of the deed — signing and acknowledging. Where forms 
are prescribed by the Statutes of a State, they must be 
followed. The long form, however, is good in all the 
States. 



THE LAW GOVERNING DEEDS. 

1. The acknowledgment of a deed can only be made 
before contain persons authorized to take the same, such 
as Justices of the Peace, Notaries, Masters in Chancery, 
Judges and Clerks of the Courts, Commissioners of 
Deeds, etc. 

2. A deed without consideration is void. 

3. Any person of legal age, competent to transact 
business, and owning real estate, may convey it by deed. 

4. The deed takes effect upon its delivery to the per- 
son authorized to receive it, and should be recorded at 
once. 

5. After the acknowledgment of a deed the parties 
have no right to make the slightest alteration. 

6. The person making the deed is called the grantor, 
the person to whom the deed is delivered is called 
grantee. 



FAKMERS' FRIEND 43 



7. A Warranty Deed. — The grantor warrants the 
title to be good, and agrees to defend the same against 
all persons. 

A Quit Claim Deed releases only what interest the 
grantor has in the property. 

8. Never purchase real estate without a careful exam- 
ination of the title, either by yourself or a trusty attor- 
ney. 

9. Always procure an abstract of title before advanc- 
ing money or signing contract for purchase of land or 
lots. 



WAERANTY DEED.— Long Form. 

This Indenture, made this Second day of March, in 
the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and 
seven between Andrew Samson and Polly Ann Samson, 
his wife, of the Village of Fernald, in the County of 
Story; and State of Iowa, party of the first part, and 
Ehenezer P. Stought of the City of Chicago, in the 
County of Cook and State of Illinois, party of the second 
part: 

WITNESSETH, That the said party of the first part, for 
and in consideration of the sum of Ten thousand Eight 
hundred and ninety ($10,890.00) Dollars, in hand paid by 
the said party of the second part, the receipt whereof 
is hereby acknowledged, and the said party of the second 
part forever released and discharged therefrom, have 
granted, bargained, sold, remised, released, conveyed, 
aliened and confirmed, and by these presents do — grant, 
bargain, sell, remise, release, convey, alien, and confirm 
unto the said party of the second part, and to his heirs 
and assigns, forever, all the following described lots, 
pieces, or parcel of land, situated in the County of Du 
Page, and State of Illinois, and known and described as 
follows, to-wit: 

The 'North-west quarter of Section Thirty-six (36) in 
Totunship thirty-eight (38) North, of Range eleven (11) 
East of the Third Principal Meridian, containing one 



44 FAKMEKS' FRIEND 



hundred and sixty acres by Government Survey. Also, 
an equal undivided one-half interest in Lot number one 
{l)in Block number three i'S) of Fernald, in the County 
and State aforesaid. 

Together with All and Singular the hereditaments 
and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in anywise 
appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remain- 
der and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof; 
and all of the estate, right, title, interest, claim, or de- 
mand whatsoever, of the said party of the first part, 
either in law or in equity, of, in, and to the above bar- 
gained premises, with the hereditaments and appurte- 
nances : To Have and to Hold the said premises above 
bargained and described, with the appurtenances, unto 
the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns 
forever. 

And the said Andrew Samson and Polly Ann Samson, 
his wife, party of the first part, for themselves and their 
heirs, executors and administrators, do covenant, grant, 
bargain, and agree to and with the said party of the sec- 
ond part, his heirs and assigns, that at the time of the 
ensealing and delivery of these presents, they are well 
seized of the premises above conveyed, as of a good, sure, 
perfect, absolute and indefeasible estate of inheritance 
in law, in fee simple, and have good right, full power, 
and lawful authority to grant, bargain, sell and convey 
the same in manner and form aforesaid, and that the 
same are free and clear from all former and other grants, 
bargains, sales, liens, taxes, assessments, and encum- 
brances, of what kind or nature soever; and the above 
bargained premises, in the quiet and peaceable posses- 
sion of the said party of the second part, his heirs and 
assigns, against all and every other person or persons 
lawfully claiming or to claim the whole or any part 
thereof, the said party of the first part shall and will 

WARRANT and DEFEND. 

And the said party of the first part hereby expressly 
waive and release any and all right, benefit, privilege, 
advantage and exemption, under or by virtue of any and 
all Statutes of the State of Illinois, providing for the 



farmers' friend 45 



exemption of homesteads from sale on execution or other- 
wise. 

In Witness Whereof, the said party of the first part 
have hereunto set their hands and seals the day and year 
first above written. 



Signed, Sealed and Deliv- 
ered in the Presence of 



Salamander S. Stone. 



Andrew Samson, (seal) 
Polly Ann Samsoyi, (seal) 

(seal) 

(seal) 



(CERTIFICATE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT.) 
STATE OF IOWA, 



ss. 
COUNTY OF STORY 

I, John Smith, a Notary Public in and for said County, 
do hereby certify that Andrew Samson and Polly N. 
Samson, his wife, who are personally known to me to be 
the same persons whose names are subscribed to the 
foregoing instrument, appeared before me this day in 
person and acknowledged that they signed, sealed and 
delivered the same as their free and voluntary act for 
the uses and purposes therein set forth, inculding a re- 
lease and waiver of the right of homestead. 

Given under mv hand and Notarial Seal this second 
day of March, 1907. 

(Signed) John Smith, 

[Notarial Seal.] Notary Public. 



MORTGAGES AND LEASES. 

A mortgage is a conveyance of property for the pur- 
pose of securing the payment of money, or the perform- 



46 FAEMERS' FRIEND 



ance of some other obligation. Real estate may be mort- 
gaged by the owner or owners for the security of a debt, 
or the performance of an obligation, or as an indemnity 
to secure another against loss. The person who makes 
the mortgage is called the mortgagor, and he to whom 
the mortgage is made is called the mortgagee. 

In the absence of stipulations to the contrary, the mort- 
gagor of real property retains the legal title and right of 
possession thereto. This legal title and right of posses- 
sion he retains not only till the debt is due, but until 
the mortgage is foreclosed and the land sold and a sher- 
iff's deed made therefor, which deed cannot be made 
until one year after the sale. During that year the mort- 
gagor has the right to redeem. The legal effect, there- 
fore, of a mortgage in this state is not to convey any 
estate in the land, but only to give the mortgagee a spec- 
ial lien or charge thereon to secure the debt. The land 
remains the property of the mortgagor, to all intents and 
purposes, the same as if no mortgage had been made. 
The mortgagee's interest is not real estate, but only per- 
sonal property. When the mortgagor is married, the 
wife or husband should join in the mortgage, to the ex- 
tent, at least, of relinquishing the right of dower, and 
if the property to be mortgaged is the homestead^ they 
should both join fullif in executing the same instrument. 
But if the mortgage is made by the grantor to secure 
the purchase money, or a part of it, the wife or husband 
of the purchaser need not join in it. The owner of land 
may mortgage it to secure the debt of another. 

Delivery. — A mortgage does not take effect until it 
has been delivered and accepted. 

Acknowledging and Recording. — A mortgage cannot 
be lawfully recorded until it has been acknowledged. An 
acknowledgment not complying with the law is the same 
as no acknowledgment at all. The purpose of recording 
a mortgage is to give notice to the world of the rights 
of the mortgagee. The statute provides that no instru- 
ment affecting real estate is of any validity against sub- 
sequent purchasers for a valuable consideration, with- 
out notice, unless recorded in the office of the recorder 



farmers' friend 47 



of the county in which the land is situated. However, 
as between the parties to the mortgage, it is bindingeven 
though not acknowledged and recorded, and upon per- 
sons who have actual notice of it. Actual notice means 
either actual knowledge, or knowledge of such facts as 
should put a reasonable man upon inquiry, which if 
pursued, would result in knowledge. 

Form. — The cardinal element of a mortgage is that of 
security for the payment of a debt or performance of an 
obligation. Therefore no particular form is necessary. 
It may be in the form of an absolute conveyance, yet if 
it is intended as a security it is a mortgage. A mort- 
gage of itself never changes its character. ''Once a 
mortgage always a mortgage" is a legal maxim. 

Assignment of Mortgage. — If the mortgage is given 
to secure the payment of promissory notes, the notes are 
the evidence of the debt, and the mortgage is but an in- 
cident thereto. A transfer of the notes by endorsement 
will transfer the mortgage. The mortgage may also be as- 
signed by a writing on the back thereof, or by a separate 
written instrument, and if such assignment is made it 
will authorize the assignee to foreclose the same and to 
cancel the mortgage upon the records, the assignment 
being also recorded. If the assignment is to be recorded, 
it must also be acknowledged like a deed. When one 
purchases the note or notes secured by the mortgage, he 
should also take an assignment of the mortgage, duly 
acknowledged, and file it for record. This will prevent 
the mortgagee from satisfying the mortgage of record 
and thereby deprive the assignee of the security. The 
assignment of the mortgage alone, without an assign- 
ment also of the note or debt secured thereby, does not 
carry anything of value to the assignee. He cannot by 
reason thereof collect any part of the debt. 

Mortgage Continues Though Debt be Changed. — It 
is a general rule that nothing but the actual payment 
of the debt secured by a mortgage, or the express return 
of the mortgage, will discharge the lien created thereby. 
The lien lasts as long as the debt, if there is no release. 
No change in the form of the debt is a payment of it, 



48 farmers' friend 



and no such change will discharge the mortgage. If the 
old notes be taken up and new notes given for the same 
debt, with interest added, and an extension of time of 
payment, the lien of the mortgage continues unbroken. 

Collection of a Mortgage Debt. — When the mortgage 
debt, or any jDart of it, is due and unpaid, the holder of 
the debt may at his option, discard the mortgage and 
bring an action at law for a personal judgment against 
the debtor for so much of the debt as is due. However, 
the ordinary method of procedure to collect the mortgage 
debt is by the foreclosure of the mortgage. In this 
proceeding, usually, a personal judgment is rendered 
against the debtor, and, in addition thereto, there is a 
special order for the sale of the mortgaged property, or 
so much thereof as may be necessary to satisfy the judg- 
ment so rendered, with interest and costs. If the mort- 
gaged property does not sell for enough to satisfy the 
debt, a general execution may be had against the debtor 
for the balance, unless the parties have otherwise agreed. 

Redemption. — The mortgagor has the same right to 
redeem the property from the foreclosure sale as if it 
were sold under a general execution to satisfy an ordin- 
ary judgment. This right of redemption continues for 
twelve months after the sale, during which time no title 
or right of possession passes by virtue of the sale. At the 
end of that time, if no redemption is made, a sheriff's 
deed is executed to the person entitled thereto and the 
purchaser is entitled to enter at once into the i)ossession 
and control of the land. 

Satisfaction of Record. — When the mortgage is paid, 
it is the duty of the mortgagee, or of any assignee who 
appears by the record to be the owner of the mortgage, 
to cause it to be canceled on the record, so that it no 
longer appears as a charge upon the land. When the 
mortgage is foreclosed, this duty devolves upon the clerk 
of the court. No specific form of realese is necessary. 
It may be by the marginal release, as by entering upon 
the margin of the record of the mortgage a statement 
to the effect that the mortgage is canceled by payment 
of the debt or that some portion of the mortgaged prop- 



farmers' friend 49 



erty is released from the lien created by the mortgage, 
or it may be released and discharged by an instrument 
acknowledging the payment of the debt and discharge 
of the mortgage, which should be filed for record in the 
office of the recorder of deeds. 

Chattel 'Mortgage. — Such mortgage is a sale of per 
sonal property for the purpose of securing the payment 
of a debt or for the performance of some other obliga- 
tion, upon condition that the sale shall be void upon the 
payment of the debt or the discharge of the obligation 
according to the terms of the agreement. The posses- 
sion of the property may be retained by the mortgagor, 
or it may pass to the mortgagee, as the parties may 
agree. 

Any person of lawful age and of sufficient mental 
capacity to enter into other contracts may make a valid 
mortgage of personal property to which he has the legal 
title, but one who has the mere possession of such prop- 
erty, without the legal title, cannot make a mortgage 
upon it which will be binding upon the true owner. 

Form. — Chattel mortgages are usually in writing, 
signed and acknowledged by the mortgagor, and re- 
corded in the office of the recorder of deeds. No partic- 
ular form is necessary. As between the parties them- 
selves it is not necessary that the instrument be either 
acknowledged or recorded, or even that the contract be 
in writing. 

Delivery and Acceptance. — As with respect to all 
other written contracts, so with chattel mortgages ; they 
do not take effect until there is a delivery and an accept- 
ance, and from the moment of such delivery and accept- 
ance, unless there is an agreement to the contrary, they 
take effect. 

There are many provisions of the law applicable to 
consideration, description of the property, description of 
the debt, what may be mortgaged, future acquired prop- 
erty and nature of the mortgagor's interest, which are 
too long and numerous to be treated herein. 

Mortgagor's Rights and Remedies. — Practically the 
same remedies are available to the mortgagee under a 



50 farmers' friend 



chattel as under a real estate mortgage. However, with 
respect to a chattel mortgage he has the further remedy, 
that he or his agent may seize and sell the mortgaged 
property, or so much thereof as may be necessary, under 
the power given him in the mortgage. In pursuing this 
method, it is customary to give the mortgage to the sher- 
iff or constable, and authorize him to proceed to seize, 
advertise and sell the property. However, this is not 
necessary. The mortgagee may do this for himself, or 
he may authorize any other person to do it for him ; and 
when he employs a sheriff or constable such officer 
acts only as his agent, and not in his official capacity. 

The mortgagee may seize and sell the property as soon 
ivS the secured debt is overdue and unpaid. He has the 
absolute right so to do, still he must not exercise that 
right unless he can do so peaceably. If nothing is said 
in the mortgage to the contrary, the mortgagee is by 
law entitled to the possession of the property. There 
are usually some conditions in the mortgage under which 
the mortgagee may take possession and sell before the 
debt becomes due. When the mortgage provides the 
manner of seizure and sale of the property, such pro- 
visions must be strictly complied with. The mortgage 
in such case is the authority for such acts. 

Eedemption. — So long as the property remains unsold, 
the mortgagee has the right to redeem by paying the 
debt and the costs made to that time. The sale, to be a 
legal sale, must be made for cash. If the mortgagee 
barters the property for other property, he who then 
takes it still holds it subject to the mortgagor's right 
to redeem. 

Sale Under Statute. — The statute provides a method 
of foreclosure and sale by notice, when there is no stip- 
ulation to the contrary agreed upon by the parties. These 
provisions prescribe the entire procedure for this 
method. The statute should be consulted when this 
method is intended to be followed. 



FARMEKS' FRIEND 51 



NOTARIES PUBLIC. 

The governor is authorized to appoint one or more 
persons to the office of notary public in each county as 
he may deem necessary. Either men or women may 
receive such appointment. The term is for three years, 
but all commissions expire on July 4, 1900, and every 
three years thereafter. The application should be made 
to the governor on blanks prepared and furnished by 
that office. The application must be accompanied with 
a recommendation stating that the applicant is a citizen 
of the United States, is of age, has proper qualifications 
in point of ability ajid integrity for the office, and that 
he has resided in the state a sufficient length of time to 
entitle him to vote therein. The applicant must be a 
resident of the county for which he seeks the appoint- 
ment. When the application is presented to the gov- 
ernor he will either grant or refuse the application. If 
he makes the appointment, the applicant will be duly no- 
tified thereof and furnished with a blank bond to be exe- 
cuted according to law. If the applicant be a woman 
she must be at least eighteen years of age and possess 
the same qualifications as required of male applicants. 
The commission to the applicant will be issued under 
the seal of the state by the secretary of state. At the 
time the secretary of state sends the commission to the 
applicant, he also makes and mails to the clerk of the 
district court of the proper county a certificate of ap- 
pointment, to enable such clerk to certify that the per- 
son so commissioned is a notary public for that county 
during the time such commission is in force. Should 
the commission be revoked, the secretary of state im- 
mediately notifies the clerk of such fact. 

Powers and Duties. — A notary public may take ac- 
knowledgments of deeds and other written instruments, 
administer oaths for general purposes, take depositions, 
protest commercial paper, such as promissory notes, 
bills of exchange, checks, drafts, etc., and give notice 
to endorsers. He is required to keep a record of all 
notices with the time and manner in which the same 



52 farmers' friend 



were given or sent by him, and the names of all the par- 
ties to whom the same were given or sent, with a copy of 
the instrument in relation to which the notice is served, 
and of the notice itself. 

His jurisdiction is limited to the county within which 
he is appointed; except that he may administer oaths 
and take acknowledgments in any adjoining county, pro- 
vided he has filed with the clerk of the district court of 
such adjoining county a certified copy of his certificate 
of appointment. Such certified copy is to be obtained 
from the clerk of the district court of the county for 
which he has been appointed. The removal of a notary 
from the county for which he has been commissioned is 
equivalent to a resignation of such office. No notary pub- 
lic should act as such in any cases wherein he is directly 
or indirectly interested. A notary public is liable in 
damages, to the person employing him, for negligence 
or misconduct in the line of his official duty. If such 
notary exercises the duties of his office after the expira- 
tion of his commission, or when otherwise disqualified, 
or appends his official signature to documents when the 
parties have not appeared before him, he shall be guilty 
of a misdemeanor, and fined not less than fifty dollars, 
and shall be removed from office by the governor. 



HOW TO WRITE A CHATTEL MORTGAGE. 

Use a legal printed form or write one like the copy 
given heloiv. 

A Chattel Mortgage is a mortgage on personal prop- 
erty, such as live stock, machinery, farm implements, etc. 

1. A chattel mortgage must be acknowledged before 
a Justice of the Peace, or before the Notary of the 
County, in which the mortgagor resides. 

2. The mortgage must be recorded. 

3. Chattel mortgages may not run longer than two 
years. 

4. Chattel mortgages are usually given to secure 



farmers' friend 53 



notes of the mortgagor in the same way in which real 
estate mortgages are given to secure notes of the mort- 
gagors. Greater strictness, however, is required in tlie 
acknowledgment, docketing and recording of chattel 
mortgages than in the case of real estate mortgages. 
A recent statute of the State of Illinois provides that 
notes secured by chattel mortgages must show on their 
face that they are secured by chattel mortgages, or they 
are absolutely void. Any defense which the maker of 
the note secured by chattel mortgage could make against 
the original payee is good against the note in the hands 
of an endorsee even though endorsed before maturity. 
Chattel mortgages on household goods must be signed 
by the wife of mortgagor and can only be foreclosed by 
a court proceeding. 

5. A chattel mortgage is a conditional sale of prop- 
erty, if the debt for which it was given is not paid. 

6. The property must be taken possession of by the 
mortgagee on the maturity of the mortgage, or it can be 
taken by other creditors. 

7. To sell property covered by a chattel mortgage 
is a criminal offense. 



FORM OF CHATTEL MORTGAGE. 

Know All Men by These Presents, That I, John 
Smith, of the town of Colo, in the County Story, and 
State of Iowa, acknowledge myself to be indebted to A. 
S. Barnard, of the town of Mendon, County of Monroe, 
State of New York, the sum of Four Hundred Dollars 
($400.00) with six per cent, interest from date, and for 
the security of said sum I do hereby mortgage and sell 
and assign to the said A. S. Barnard. One Bay Mare. 
4 years old. One Wagon, One Set of Double Harness and 
all my Household Furniture of every description in my 
house in the town of Colo. 

And, I hereby authorize and empower the said A. S. 
Barnard to take possession of said property and effects. 



54 FAKMERS' FEIEND 



he to sell the same and appropriate the proceeds to the 
payment of said debt and interest. 

Witness my hand and seal this first day of December, 
1906. 

John Smith, (seal) 



Chattel mortgages in South Dakota are not acknowl- 
edged, but require two witnesses, and may run three 
years. 

Chattel mortgages in Montana may run one year and 
sixty days. 



HOW TO WRITE A LEASE. 

Rule. — The party granting the possession and profit 
is called the Lessor, and the party to ivhom the grant 
is made is called the Leesee. 

A Lease is a contract to be performed by both parties, 
and hence they both should sign it. 

It is proper and best to have two copies of the lease 
(both alike), so that each party may hold a copy of the 
original agreement. 

Write the lessor's name first, and his name shoidd he 
signed first at the close. 

Payments of rent should be entered on the back of the 
lease. 

Care should be exercised in giving the time, descrip- 
tion, and the amount to be paid. 



1. A LEASE is a contract by which a party gains the 
possession, use and profit of lands and tenements, in re- 
turn for which he pays the owner thereof a recompense, 
called rent. 

2. A lease must always give a less interest in land 
than that of the lessor. If lessor conveys his whole in- 
terest, it is an assignment or deed. 

3. A lease of lands and tenements mav be by written 



farmers' friend 55 



or verbal contract, except that there cannot be a verbal 
lease for a longer period than one year. 

4. A written lease cannot be changed by verbal agree- 
ment made at the same time or another time. When 
parties reduce their agreements to writing they are bound 
by the writing as against any verbal declarations. 

5. If no time is stated when the rent is to be paid, 
it is not due till the end of the lease. 



A LEASE FOE RENTING A HOUSE. 

Know All Men by These Presents: 

That I have this sixth day of September, 1906, let 
and rented unto B. B. Welty my house and premises, 
number 142 on Archer Street, in the town of Livermore, 
and State of Iowa, with the sole and uninterrupted use 
and occupation thereof for one year, to commence the 
first day of May next, at the monthly rent of twenty 
dollars, payable in advance. 

Witness my hand and seal, 

Harry Stein, (seal) 



A LEASE— FOR CASH RENT. 

This Indenture, made this Fifth day of February, A. 
D. 1907, between Samuel E. Sport, of the Town of Ames, 
in the County of Story and State of Iowa, of the one 
part, and James R. Giddings, of the Town of Lisle, in 
the County and State aforesaid, of the other part ; 

WITNESSETH, That the said Samuel E. Sport, for the 
consideration hereinafter expressed, hath demised, 
granted and leased, and doth by these presents hereby 
demise, grant and lease unto the said James R. Giddings 
and his assigns lots one (1) two (2) and three (3) in 
block seven {!) of the original Totvn of Ames, as shown 
hy the plat of said toivn on file in the Recorder's office 
of the said Story County. And also the NortMvest quar- 



56 farmers' friend 



ter (N. W. ^) of Section Eight (8) m Township Twenty 
(20), Range Nine (9), East of the 3rd Principal Merid- 
ian, and containing one hundred and sixty (160) acres 
according to government survey. All aforesaid real es- 
tate being situate in the County of Story and State of 
Iowa, together with all the privileges and appurtenances 
thereunto belonging. TO HAVE AND TO HOLD the 
above described premises for and during the term of 
five years from the date hereof. 

And the said James R. Giddings doth covenant and 
agree to pay the said Samuel E. Sport, or his assigns, 
the sum of One Thousand Dollars, as yearly rent for 
said premises, in 2 equal payments of Five Hundred Dol- 
lars each, at the expiration of each and every six months 
from date, during the continuance of this Lease. 

In Witness Whereof, The said parties have to this 
and one other instrument of the same tenor and date 
interchangeably set their hands and seals, the day and 
year first above written. 

Signed, Sealed and Deliv- [Samuel E. Sport (seal) 
ered in Presence of 



G. Handsacker. [^ James R. Giddings. (seal) 



SECURITY FOR RENT. 

For value received I hereby enter myself security for 
the full payment of the rent reserved in the within lease, 
and guarantee the payment of the rent and full perfor- 
mance of all covenants contained herein by the said 
party of the second part. 

E. E. Brown. 



AGREEMENT TO CULTIVATE LAND ON SHARES. 

This agreement, made this first day of March, 1907, 
between H. M. Schrepfer, of the town of Cohocta, in the 



farmers' friend 57 



County of Livingstone, State of Michigan, party of the 
first part, and Richard Brown, of the City of La Salle, 
County of La Salle and State of Illinois, party of the 
second part, Witnesseth : That the said party of the first 
part has leased to the party of the second part the south- 
west quarter of Section 10, Township 33 North, Range 
3, east, of the 3rd P. M., in La Salle County, Illinois, for 
the term of two years from March 1, 1907. Said party 
of the second part covenants to cultivate said land in 
good workmanlike manner, so as to raise the greatest 
amount of grain thereon which the season and the land 
will permit; to keep the land free from noxious weeds, 
haul out the manure at least once each year and keep 
all buildings and fences on said premises in repair, and 
to deliver to the party of the first part, at his residence 
in said City of La Salle, one-half of all hay, grain, and 
other crops raised on said farm, the small grain to be 
divided at the machine and delivered immediately after 
the same is threshed, the corn to be husked and cribbed 
on or before the first day of December in each year. Said 
party of the second part further agrees to pay four 
(4.00) dollars per acre for all lands on said premises used 
as pasture, such rental to be paid to the party of the 
first part on or before October 1st in each year. Said 
party of the first part agrees to furnish all material 
which may be necessary to make the repairs herein pro- 
vided for, at the railroad station, in said City of La Salle, 
as the same shall be needed. 

A violation of any of the covenants herein contained 
will authorize the party of the first part to declare this 
lease forfeited and recover possession of the premises 
hereby demised. 

In witness hereof, the parties hereunto have set their 
hands and seals the dav and year first above written. 

(Signed) B. M. Schrepfer. (seal) 

Richard Brown (seal) 

N. B. — It is not necessary to go to a lawyer or notary to make a 
valid agreement. State what you mutually agree to in plain language. 
Follow tlie above form as near as possible. 



58 FAEMERS' FRIEND 



THE LAW GOVERNING ALL KINDS OF 
CONTRACTS. 

1. A contract is a mutual agreement between two 
competent parties for a valuable consideration to do or 
not to do a particular thing, 

2. It must have, 1. Parties; 2. Subject Matter; 3. 
Consideration; 4. Assent of the parties. There cannot 
be a contract when any of these are wanting. 

3. A consideration is the thing which induces a per- 
son to make a contract. 

4. An alteration of a contract in a material part, 
after its execution, renders it void. 

5. A contract the law forbids is void. Fraud ren- 
ders all contracts void. 

6. A contract made by a minor, a lunatic, or an idiot 
is not binding upon him, yet he can hold the party with 
whom he contracts, to all the conditions of the contract. 

7. A contract not consistent with law or for immoral 
purposes is void. 

8. A fraudulent contract may be binding on the 
party guilty of fraud, although not laying any obligation 
on the part of the party acting in good faith. 

9. A contract for the sale or purchase of personal 
property over a certain amount — ranging from $30 to 
$200 in some States — must be in writing. 

10. A contract which cannot be performed within a 
year must be in writing. 

11. A guaranty must be in writing. 

12. If no time of payment is stated in the contract, 
payment must be made on the delivery of the goods or 
performance of the contract. 

13. A contract totally restraining the exercise of a 
man's trade or profession is void, but one restraining 
him in any particular place in not void. 

14. An offer or proposal, which includes the essen- 
tial parts of a contract, becomes a contract as soon as 
accepted. 

15. A contract required by law to be in writing can- 
not be dissolved by verbal agreement. 



farmers' friend 59 



16. A contract cannot be partly written and partly 
verbal. It must be wholly written or wholly verbal. 



CONTRACT— DRUNKENNESS. 

If a man enters into a contract, and afterwards at- 
tempts to avoid it upon the ground that he was drunk 
when he made it, he must prove that he was at the time 
so completely under the influence of intoxicating liquors 
that he was unable to understand the effect and conse- 
quences of the transaction. This is the general doctrine 
on the subject in all the states. It was approved re- 
cently by the supreme court of Iowa. 



HOW TO WRITE A CONTRACT. 

Rule: — 1. The parties to a Contract are taken in the 
order in ivhich they are written and referred to as ''the 
party of the first part", "the party of the second part", 
ivithout repeating their names. It matters not which 
name is written first. 

2. After writing the date, names of the parties and 
their places of residence, state fidly all that the first 
party agrees to do, and then state all that the second 
party agrees to do. 

3. Next state the penalties or forfeitures in case 
either party does not faithfully and fully perform, or 
offer to perform, his part of the agreement. 

4. Finally, the closing clause, the signatures and 
seals, the signatures of ivitnesses are written. ( A seal 
is simply the mark of a pen around the word " seal", 
ivritten after the signature.) 

No particular form of legal language is necessary. Use 
your own words and state in a plain way just what you 
want done. Anyone who can write a letter and express 
his desire in an intelligent manner can write a contract. 



60 farmers' friend 



Errors in grammar or spelling do not affect the legal- 
ity of the agreement. 

If the language should be obscure on certain points, 
the ''court" will always interpret the intent of the par- 
ties, when they entered into the agreement, provided the 
intent can be gatherd from the terms of the instrument 
itself. 

When an agreement is written it must all be in writ- 
ing. It cannot be partly written and partly oral. 



LAND CONTRACT. 

This agreement, made this first day of June, A. D. 
1907, between John Brown of the City of Dunkirk, in 
the State of New York, party of the first part, and Nor- 
man C. Stull, of the City of Buffalo, of the same State, 
party of the second part, Witnesseth, That if the said 
party of the second part shall first make the ]:)a3niients 
and perform the covenants hereinafter mentioned on 
his part the said party of the first part hereby agrees 
to convey and assure to the said party of the second part 
in fee simple, clear of all incumbrances whatsoever, by 
a good and sufficient warranty deed the following de- 
scribed premises to-wit: (Here describe property to 
be conveyed), and the said party of the second part 
covenants and agrees to pay to the said party of the 
first part the sum of two thousand (2,000.00) dollars 
as follows: 

Five hundred ($500.00) dollars cash in hand paid, the 
receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, balance on 
March 1, 1906, with interest at the rate of 6 per cent, 
per annum, payable annually after the date hereof, and 
all taxes and assessments legally levied or imposed upon 
said land subsequent to the year 1906. A complete ab- 
stract of title broua:ht down to date to be furnished by 
said party of the first part on or before thirty days from 
the date hereof, in case title, on examination should 
prove to be defective then the said party of the first 



farmers' friend 61 



part agrees to perfect the same within a reasonable time, 
and in case of failure so to do, or in case said title can- 
not be perfected the cash paid hereon shall be refunded 
and this contract shall become null and void. Deed 
to be delivered March 1, 1908, deferred payments to be 
secured by note and first mortgage by the party of. the 
second part on the premises hereby sold. This contract 
shall extend to, and be obligatory upon the heirs, admin- 
istrators, executors, and assigns of the respective par- 
ties. 

In testimony whereof the parties have hereunto set 
their hands and seals the day and year first above writ- 
ten. 

(Signed) John Brown. (seal) 

Norman C. St nil. (seal) 

Witness: Geo. Fry. 



A CONTRACT FOR THE SALE OF HORSES, CAT- 
TLE, OR OTHER PERSONAL PROPERTY. 

This agreement, between John Smith, and Frank 
Jones, made this nineteenth day of October, 1906, wit- 
nesseth : 

That said John Smith, for the consideration hereinafter 
mentioned, shall sell and deliver on the first day of 
November next to said Frank Jones at his residence, 
One Double Wagon, Two Four-Year-Old Colts and Six 
Yearling Heifers. 

That said Frank Jones, in consideration thereof, shall 
pay said John Smith Three Hundred Dollars, upon the 
delivery of said property. 

In witness whereof we have this day set our hands 
and seal. 

John Smith. 
Frank Jones. 



62 farmers' friend 



A CONTEACT FOR LAYING TILE OR 
BUILDING FENCE. 

This agreement made this first day of July, 1906, be- 
tween H. C. Nauman of the first part, and G. C. Gasser 
of the second part, Witnesseth: That the said party 
of the first part agrees to lay upon the farm of the said 
party of the second part of Napervill^ Township, Du 
Page County, Illinois, 120 rods of six inch tile at such 
places on said farm as the said party of the first part 
may designate for the sum of forty cents per rod, said 
tile to be so laid that there shall be sufficient fall to 
properly drain the land through which the same is laid. 
And all ditches to be properly filled by the party of the 
first part; and the said party of the second part agrees 
to pay said party of the first part one-half the con- 
sideration above expressed when he has laid 60 rods of 
said tiling and the balance on completion of the contract. 

Witness the hands of the parties hereto the day and 
year above written. 

(Signed) H. C. Nauman. 

G. C. Gasser 



FORM OF MECHANIC'S LIEN, 

STATE OF IOWA, 1 t .i n- ■, n +q 

' I In the Circuit Court, Sac 

SAC COUNTY. J ^^' County. 

Julius Warren, 

vs. V Claim for Lien. 

Martin Smith. 

Jiilins Warren, being first duly &worn, on oath, says 
that he is the claimant above named, and that the 
attached "Exhibit A", is a just and true statement of 
the account due him from said Martin Smith for, labor 



farmers' friend 63 



and materials furnished said Martin Smith at the times 
in said statement mentioned, which various amounts are 
due and payable to him from and after the respective 
dates thereof : and affiant says that the labor and mater- 
ials in said statement mentioned were used in the con- 
struction and improvement of a two-story frame build- 
ing situate upon the following described premises in 
the County of Sac and State of Iowa, to-wit: Lot two 
(2), in Block three (3), of the original town of Sac City. 
And affiant says that there is now due and owing to 
said Julius Warren from said Martin Smith, at whose 
request said material and labor was furnished as afore- 
said, after allowing to him all just credits, deductions, 
and set-offs, the sum of $500, for which amount said 
Julius Warren claims a lien upon the above described 
premises. 

Subscribed and sworn to before me " 
this 29th day of February, A. D. 
1896. 

John Smith, 

Notary Public. 



Julius Warren. 



N. B. — The foregoing statement should be signed and sworn to 
before some officer authorized to administer oaths, and filed with the 
Clerk of the Circuit Court of the county where th)e real estate is situ- 
ated, and a suit to enforce the same must be begun within two years 
from the date of the completion of the contract. 



HOW TO SECURE A MECHANIC'S LIEN 
ON PROPERTY. 

1. A Lien is a legal claim. It includes every case 
in which either real or personal property is charged 
with any debt or duty. Or in other words, it is the 
right to hold possession of property until some claim 
against it has been satisfied. 

2. Possession is always necessary to create a lien 
except in case of mortgages. The lien simply extends 



64 farmers' friend 



to the right of holding the property until the debt is 
satisfied. The property cannot be sold without the con- 
sent of the owner, except by order of the Court. 

3. Laiv : The existence of a lien does not prevent the 
party entitled to it from collecting the debt or claim by 
taking it into Court. 

4. Warehouse men, carpenters, tailors, dyers, mill- 
ers, printers, etc., or any person who performs labor 
or advances money on property or goods of another 
has a lien on same until all charges are paid. 

5. Hotel Keepers have a lien upon the baggage of 
their guests, whom they have accommodated. 

6. Common Carriers have a lien on goods carried 
for transporation charges. 

7. Agents have a lien on goods of their principal for 
money advanced. 

8. How to Hold the Lien. Never give up possession 
of the property until the debt is paid. 

9. Real Property. If the debt is on a house, barn 
or other real property, file a lien on the whole property, 
and have it recorded in the County Recorder's office. 
The claim then partakes of the nature of a mortgage. 

10. Mechanic's Lien. — Nearly all the states have 
enacted special laws to protect mechanics and material 
men who may furnish material and labor for the erec- 
tion, construction, repair and improvement of buildings 
situated thereon. The method of securing these Uens 
and enforcina- them in the different states varies so 
widely that it is almost impossible to give such a state- 
ment as will cover all states. The courts have construed 
such laws very strictly and in order to entitle a person 
to such lien the provisions of the law granting the same 
must be strictly complied with. Mechanics and mater- 
ial men desiring to avail themselves of these statutes 
had better consult some good lawyer and have him pre- 
pare the necessary papers. The followina: form is the 
one commonly in use in the State of Illinois: 

Attachment. — This is a writ issued by the Justice of 
the Peace or Judge, or some other officer having juris- 
diction, commanding the sheriff or constable to attach 



farmers' friend 65 



the property of the debtor, to satisfy the demands of 
the creditor. This writ may be issued at the beginning 
or during the suit. In some States, Alabama, Illinois, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri and Iowa, the creditor 
may retain possession of the property and give a bond 
as a guarantee that the property will be held for the 
debt in case he is defeated in the suit. All attachments 
lose their validity in case the debtor (or defendant) wins 
the suit. 

ARBITRATION BEST FOR FARMERS. 
Arbitration is almost invariably preferable to litiga- 
tion. It is not only the easiest, quickest and cheapest 
way to settle disagreements, but saves much vexation 
and subsequent dissension. Were individuals, corpor- 
ations and nations to arrange their disputes by arbi- 
tration, instead of resorting to litigation and warfare, 
the people would be saved millions of treasure, and the 
world spared much shedding of blood. A peaceful set- 
tlement of difficulties is usually followed by prosperity, 
while ''going to law" or war usually results in loss and 
suffering to both contestants. Indeed, litigation and 
warfare are twin relics of the dark ages, and so long as 
they continue in vogue we may look in vain for harbin- 
gers of the promised millennium. Of all classes, far- 
mers should, so far as possible, avoid entering into liti- 
gation ; for whether they win or lose, they are proverbi- 
ally worsted, the lawyers usually taking the cream, and 
leaving only the skim-milk for the winning contestant. 
Truly, there is neither glory nor honor, profit nor pleas- 
ure in litigation, and the less people who profess to live 
"on the square", and, according to the Commandments, 
have to do therewith, the better it will be for both their 
present and future peace and prosperity. Even in the 
most aggravating case of trespass, and the like, no good 
citizen should resort to the law, until all amicable at- 
tempts at settlement have failed. Indeed, and finally, 
whatever may be the provocation don't get mad and im- 
pulsively prosecute your neighbor, but keep your tem- 
per. 



6G' farmers' friend 



HOW TO SETTLE DIFFICULTIES BY 
ARBITRATION. 

Arbitration is an agreement by parties who have a 
controversy or difference to the decision of a third party. 

Arbitration is one of the highest courts for the settle- 
ment of personal differences, and if people would only 
learn more of its benefits and advantages, lawyers by the 
thousands would not thrive and fatten upon the earn- 
ings of those who could make better use of their money. 

When the matters in difference are simply those of 
fact, it is often more satisfactory to submit them to the 
decision of mutual friends, each contending party choos- 
ing one, and the two arbitrators thus chosen choosing 
the third, and the three parties thus chosen constitut- 
ing the court. 

The decision of the arbitrators is called an aivard. 

The award should be specific and distinct containing 
the decision of the arbitrators in as clear and concise 
language as possible. 

The following oath should be taken by the persons 
chosen to act as arbitrators or referees before entering 
upon the examination of the matters in dispute: We, 
the undersigned arbitrators appointed by and between 
Henry Smith and Richard Brown, do swear fairly and 
faithfully to hear and examine the matters in contro- 
versy between said Henry Smith and Richard Brown. , 



PETITION FOR LAYING OUT A ROAD. 

To the Commissioners of the toivn of Colo, 
] County of Story, and State of Iowa. 

Your petitioners of the town of Colo tvould respect- 
fully represent that the public convenience and ivants 
require that a road and highway should he laid and con- 
structed, beginning at the Northivest corner of J. D. 
Wild's farm, in the town of Colo, and leading in a direct 
line South to the town of Collins. 

Your petitioners ivoidd therefore ask that your honors 



FAEMERS' FRIEND 67 



would view the premises, and locate and construct said 
road and highway, according to the laws in such cases 
made and provided, as shoivn by the Statutes of the 
State. 

(Signatures.) (Signatures.) 

Note. — The places where the road commences and 
ends should be particularly described, but the farms 
and lots through which it is to pass need not be de- 
scribed. 

This form will apply whether to the commissioners 
of a town or county. 



PETITION FOR CHANGING A EOAD. 

To the Commissioners for the County of 

The undersigned respectfully represent that the pub- 
lic road and highway from the house of W. S. Waite, 
in the town of Barnard, passing the house of G. H. 
Schaefer, to the house of John Young, in the town of 
Diegel, is indirect, inconvenient, and out of the way; 
wherefore, your petitioners request your honorable body 
to vieiv the premises, straighten or neiv locate such road, 
and discontinue such parts of the present highway as 
may be useless, or make such alterations and improve- 
ments as shall appear to your honors necessary. 
(Signatures.) (Signatures.) 



ALL ABOUT RIGHTS OF WAY. 

When one person has a right to pass over the land of 
another, this right is called a right of way. There are 
three methods by which this right can be acquired : 1st, 
by purchase or land grant from the owner of the land, 
2nd, by long-continued use or prescription, 3rd, by neces- 
sity. To obtain a permanent right of way by the first 
method, there must be a complete deed of it, with all the 
formalities required in a deed of the land itself. It is 
such an interest in the land as the law requires to be 



68 farmers' friend 



by a deed. If the bargain was an oral one, or even in 
writing, if not in the form of a deed, it would not hold. 
It should be granted under seal and acknowledged in 
those States where the law requires a deed to be sealed 
and acknowledged. 

A right of way is acquired by prescription by an ad- 
verse use for twenty years. 



NOTICE TO WORK ON THE ROAD. , 

To Mr. H. J. Barter, 
Lombard, III. 
You are hereby notified that your road tax of $2.48 
and poll tax of $2.50 is now due, and if you desire to 
ivork out the same on the public road, you will report 
for duty on the turn-pike, just east of G. E. Gasser's 
residence. May 28th, 1891, at 7 o'clock A. M. A part 
or the whole tax may be paid in cash, if preferred. 

G. F. Diegel, 
Commissioner or Path Master. 



ESTRAY NOTICE. 



LOST COLT. 

Take Notice! — On the 3rd day of June, 1906, there 
strayed onto my enclosed land in the town of Lisbon, 
County of Linn: One two-year old colt, a dark bay, with 
small star in the forehead, and left hind foot white; and 
one dark brown calf, with black spots on each side. Any- 
one claiming the above described animals can obtain 
possession of same by furnishing sufficient proof of 
ownership, and paying all expense and cost. 

1. The above notice may be printed in the local paper, 
or written ont, and tacked up in three or four promi- 
nent places in the vicinity where the stray animal was 
taken up. 

2. No one can claim a stray without advertising the 
same, and giving the proper notice, such as the statutes 
of the State require. 



farmers' friend 69 



3. If the stray is not redeemed by the owner, it may 
be sold at public auction to pay cost and expense. 



TRESPASSING ANIMALS. 

If cattle, or horses or sheep or hogs, or chickens, or 
dogs, or any other animals, trespass upon the land of 
a neighbor, they cannot be injured or killed by the owner 
of the land upon which the trespass is committed, no 
matter how often repeated. The law regulates these 
matters by damages, and every innocent person is pro- 
tected, and generally fully compensated for all dama- 
ges caused by trespassing animals. 

Many States and local authorities have laws by which 
trespassing animals can be taken up, and either held 
by the party upon whose land the trespassing is com- 
mitted or placed in a public coral or pound. They are 
kept there at the expense of the owner and damages or 
fines or both must first be paid before the animals can 
be taken or removed by the owner. 



THE FINDINGS OF VARIOUS COURTS IN THE 
UNITED STATES, IN IMPORTANT TEST CASES. 

A Promise to Realese A Debt does not Discharge it.- 
A promise to release a debt is not the same thing as an 
actual release; and, if there is not sufficient considera- 
tion for the promise to release, the promise is not en- 
forceable. And while an actual composition signed by 
a creditor may have the effect of releasing the debt, a 
refusal to sign it cannot have such an effect, although 
the signature was promised. Such a promising cred- 
itor might see cause to change his mind, for any sufficient 
reason ; and if he did, the act of release is not perfected, 
— the discharge does not take place. The creditor still 
retains his lawful claim against the debtor. McNutt v. 
Loney, S. C. Pa., 25 At. Rep. 1088. 

Payment of Bank Checks after Death of Maker. — 
Some authorities distinguish between cases where Bank 



70 farmers' friend 



Checks are drawn for a valuable consideration and 
where they are mere gifts, the holding of such author- 
ities being that in the former class of cases deatli does 
not revoke the checks, and that in the latter it does. But 
in the case of gifts when the delivery is coupled with an 
intent to transfer a present interest, in the money pre- 
sented by the check, and no revocation is attempted, it 
would seem that the intent of the donor should be given 
effect, and the transaction be held to transfer a present 
interest, and a right to the pa3anent of the check after the 
death of the drawer, as well as before. May v. Jones. 
S. C. Iowa, 54 N. W. Eep. 231. 



FENCE LAWS. 



1. Fence laws are generally regulated by State Stat- 
iites or local authorities. 

2. A few general laws, however, are commonly held 
in all the States. 

3. Legal Fence. — ^First find out from the State Stat- 
ute or local law what constitutes a legal fence. A legal 
fence is generally a four foot fence with sufficient boards 
or wire, or both, to turn cattle and sheep. 

4. If cattle or horses break through fences in any 
way defective or neglected, the owner of the cattle or 
horese doing the damage is not responsible, if it was 
not his fence or the injury brought about through his 
neglect. 

5. Every man is compelled to look after his own part 
of the fence and keep it in good repair and look out and 
restrain his own animals in trespassing upon the lands 
of another. 

6. Owners of adjoining cultivated lands are required 
to make division fences in common, unless there is a law 
to the contrary. 

7. In erecting division fences according to law, half 
of it may be placed upon adjoining land, and the other 
part must pay half for erecting and maintaining it, or 



FARMEKS' FEIEND 71 



the owner of the adjoining land can build it himself. 
No man has a right to build a fence on another man's 
land, unless there is a law that will permit him to do so. 
8. Fences are fixtures that pass with the sale of the 
land. Posts or boards that have ever been used as a 
fence on a farm, though when the farm is sold are piled 
up, and not used at the time for fencing purposes, can- 
not be removed as personal property. 



TERMS AND FACTS OF CRIMINAL LAW. 

1. The Rule, "Every man's house is his castle", 
only applies to civil cases. Any locked door of the house 
may be forced open to arrest a criminal. 

2. Every Man is compelled by law to obey the call of 
a sheriff for assistance in making an arrest. 

3. Embezzlement is a fraudulent appropriation to 
one's own use what is entrusted to one's care, and can 
only be charged against a clerk, servant, or agent. 

4. The Offense of Stealing cannot be lawfully set- 
tled by receiving back stolen property. 

5. Bigamy cannot be proven in law if one party to 
the marriage has been absent and not been heard from in 
five years. 

6. Petit Larceny is where the value of the property 
stolen is less than $15.00. Grand larceny is when the 
value of the property stolen exceeds $25.00. 

7. Arson is the burning of an inhabited building by 
night. 

8. Drunkenness is not a legal excuse for crime. 

9. Assault and Battery is where a person has in- 
flicted physical violence; an assault however, is only an 
offer or attempt at assault. 

10. Mayhem applies to any injury done to a limb. 
It formerly applied to the injury of the face, lip, tongue, 
eye or ear. 

11. Felony is a crime punishable by imprisonment 
in a State prison. 



72 farmers' friend 



12. An Accident is not a crime, unless criminal care- 
lessness can be proven. 

13. Burglary is the entering of a house at night or 
at twilight, or in any darkness where it is difficult to 
distinguish a man's face. 

14. Perjury is false swearing wilfully done. A wit- 
ness should always qualify his statements as ''to the 
best of my belief" or "as I am informed". 

15. Murder in the first degree must be premeditated 
and malicious, or committed while the murderer is en- 
gaged in some felonious act. 

16. Duels. Killing a man in a duel is murder, and 
any person giving or accepting a challenge is guilty of 
a misdemeanor. 

17. A Police Officer cannot arrest a person with- 
out a warrant, unless he has personal knowledge of the 
offense. 

Criminal Liability. — If any person maliciously kill, 
maim or disfigure any horse, cattle or other domestic 
beasts of another, or maliciously administer poison to 
any such animal, or expose any poisonous substance with 
intent that the same will be taken by such animal, upon 
conviction, shall be imprisoned in the penitentiary not 
exceeding five years, or imprisoned in the county jail 
not exceeding one year; or be fined not exceding three 
hundred dollars. 

Cruelty in General. — It is made a criminal offense 
punishable by imprisonment in the county jail not ex- 
ceeding thirty days, or by a fine not exceeding one hun- 
dred dollars, for any person to torture, torment, over- 
drive, mutilate, cruelly beat or cruelly kill any animal, 
or unnecessarily fail to provide the same with proper 
nourishment or protection, or to drive or work the same 
when unfit for labor or cruelly abandon the some. 

Estrays. — Any animal of an unknown owner running 
at large or trespassing within a lawful enclosure is an 
astray, and may be taken up by any householder in the 
county, except an unbroken animal, between the first day 
of May and the first day of November, where such un- 
broken animal is not required to be restrained by police 



farmers' friend 73 



regulation. If such householder fails to take up such 
estray, any other householder may notify him of the fact, 
and after the expiration of jS.ve days from the giving of 
such notice may then take up such estray, if still at large, 
but proof of the giving of such notice must be made 
before the proper justiceof the peace. 

Estray Notices. — Any person taking up an estray 
shall within five days thereafter, post up a written notice 
in three of the most public places in the township, which 
notice shall contain a full description of such animal 
and a statement as to where the same was taken. Un- 
less previously claimed, such person shall, within ten 
days, go before a justice of the peace of the township 
in which the estray was taken up, or if there is none, then 
before the next nearest justice in the county, and make 
oath to the correctness of such notice, together with the 
statement attached thereto as to whether the marks or 
brands of such animal have been altered to his knowl- 
edge, either before or after the same was taken up, 
which notice shall be recorded by the justice in his es- 
tray book, and within five days forwarded by the jus- 
tice to the county auditor, who shall enter the same in 
the estray book in his office, and shall cause a copy of 
said notice to be posted at the courthouse door. If the 
estray is stock, the county auditor shall cause notice of 
the taking up to be published weekly for three weeks in 
some newspaper in the county. 

Payment of Fees. — The fees of the justice of the peace 
and the expense of forwarding the notice to the auditor, 
and the auditor's fee for entering the notice in the es- 
tray book and for posting the copy thereof, and if the 
estray is stock the sum of one dollar and fifty cents for 
the expense of publishing notice of the taking up must 
be paid by the person taking up the estray, to be re- 
funded by the owner of the animal. Two or more es- 
trays may be included in one notice. If the estrays are 
owned by different owners, a proportionate division of 
the fees must be made. 

Title to Estrays. — If the estray be stock and be not 
claimed by the owner within one year, or being any other 



74 farmers' friend 



domestic animal if it be not claimed by the owner withm 
six months from the time it was taken up, the property 
therein shall vest in the taker-up if he has complied 
with the above provisions. 

Keclaiming Estrays. — At any time before title to an 
estray vests, the owner of the estray may reclaim it, 
upon payment of the lawful fees and expenses and a 
reasonable allowance for keeping the estray, to be fixed 
by the justice before whom proceedings are had, in case 
the owner and taker up of the estray cannot agree. 
Within six months after title to an estray has vested 
in the taker up, the owner of the estray may recover the 
value thereof at the time it was taken up, not including 
any increased value accrued since it was taken up, after 
deducting therefrom the compensation, reward, fees and 
expenses above provided for; or the taker up of the es- 
tray may elect to receive such compensation, reward, 
fees and expenses and return the estray to the owner. 

Taker-up may Use and Work the Estray. — Any per- 
son taking up an estray may use and work the same, pro- 
viding care and moderation are used and no injury is 
done the same. But if any person unlawfully takes up 
an estray or fail to comply with these provisions, or use 
or work it in any manner contrary to this chapter or 
work it before having it appraised, or keep it out of 
the county for more than five days at any one time before 
he acquires title thereto, he shall forfeit t'o the county 
twenty dollars, to be sued for by any person in the 
county, and the owner of the estray may recover double 
damages and costs. Estrays adapted thereto may be 
bred and milked by the taker. 

Taking estrays out of the state, before title has vested, 
subjects the finder to payment of double the value of the 
estray, and fine and imprisonment, but the auditor may 
authorize the taker up to transfer the estray to another, 
who shall take the place of his predecessor. 

The fees for restraining animals and for keeping and 
selling the same and for taking up estrays are fixed by 
law. 

Fence-viewers. — The township trustees are consti- 



farmers' friend 75 



tuted fence-viewers. They have power to determine any 
controversy arising relating to fences, upon giving five 
days' notice in writing to the opposite party or parties 
prescribing the time and place of meeting, to hear and 
determine the matter named in such notice. Upon re- 
quest of any land owner, the fence-viewers shall give 
notice to all adjoining land owners liable for the erec- 
tion, maintenance, rebuilding, trimming or cutting back 
or the repairing of a partition fence, or to pay for an 
existing hedge or fence ; at such time and place the fence- 
viewers shall meet and determine by written order the 
obligations, rights and duties of the respective parties in 
such matter, and assign to each owner the part he shall 
erect, maintain, rebuild, trim or cut back or pay for, 
and fix the value thereof, and prescribe the time in which 
the same shall be completed or paid for, and in case of 
repair may specify the time in which the repairs should 
be made. A division of the line may be made although 
the adjoining owner is not then lialDle to contribute to 
the erection of a fence and the adjoining owner shall 
contribute thereto whenever he becomes liable so to do, 
as hereinabove specified. 

The statute fixes the fees of the fence-viewers at two 
dollars each per day of eight hours. Their fees shall be 
paid in the first instance by the party requiring their 
services, and in the report of their proceedings they 
shall direct who shall pay said fees, and in what sums 
respectively, and the party having advanced any fees 
may have his action therefor against the parties so di- 
rected to pay the same, unless within ten days after de- 
mand the party entitled thereto shall be reimbursed. 

Division of Lines. — Adjoining owners may agree upon 
a division of the line of partition fences by an instrument 
in writing, acknowledged and recorded like a deed of 
real estate, and such instrument and all others made in 
writing by the fence-viewers are binding upon their 
makers, their heirs and subsequent grantees. If the 
land should cease to.be a means of revenue or benefit 
such agreement and orders will be inoperative while not 
thus used. 



76' farmers' friend 



The Record. — All orders and notices must be in writ- 
ing and notices must be served like a justice of the peace 
original notice, and the township clerk must record at 
length all orders, decisions, notices and returns, and 
such record or a duly certified copy thereof shall be 
competent evidence in all courts. 

Appeals. — An appeal may be taken to the district 
court from any order or decision of the fence-viewers 
in the same manner as appeals are taken from a justice 
of the peace, except that the appeal bond must be ap- 
proved by the township clerk. The township clerk, after 
recording the original papers, must file the same in the 
office of the clerk of the district court, and certify them 
to be such, and the clerk of the court shall docket the 
case entitling the applicant or petitioner as plaintiff, 
and it shall stand for trial as other cases. 

A Fence on Another's Land. — May be removed by 
the owner upon his first paying or offering to pay the 
owner on whose land the fence is, for any damage done 
to the soil and any timber used in said improvement 
taken from said adjoining land. Such removal shall be 
made as soon as practicable, but not so as to expose the 
crop of the other party. 

Lines. — A fence may be built on the line between ad- 
jacent owners, partly on one owner's land and partly on 
the other's land, and may be removed as if wholly on 
the land of the person erecting the fence. 

A Lawful Fence. — Shall consist of three rails of good 
substantial material, or three boards of not less than six 
inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick, such 
rails or boards to be fastened in or to good substantial 
posts, not more than ten feet apart where rails are used, 
and not more than eight feet apart where boards are 
used, or wire either wholly or in part, substantially built 
and kept in good repair, or any other kind of fence, 
which in the opinion of the fence-viewers shall be equiv- 
alent thereto, the lowest or bottom rail, wire or board 
not more than twenty nor less than sixteen inches from 
the ground, the top rail, wire or board to be be- 



farmers' friend 77 



tween forty-eight and fifty-four inches in height, and 
the center rail, wire or board not less than twelve nor 
more than eighteen inches above the bottom rail, wire 
or board, or it shall consist of three wires, barbed with 
not less than thirty-six iron barbs of two points each 
or twenty-six iron barbs of four points each on each 
rod of wire, or of four wires, two thus barbed and two 
smooth, the wires to be firmly fastened to posts not more 
than two rods apart, with not less than two stays be- 
tween posts, or with posts not more than one rod apart, 
without such stays, the top wire to be not more than 
fifty-four nor less than forty-eight inches in height. 

Hog and Sheep Tight Fences. — All partition fences 
may be made tight by the party desiring it, and at his 
election the added material may be removed. In case 
adjoining owners or occupants of land shall use the same 
for pasturing swine or sheep, each shall keep his share 
of the partition fence in such condition as shall restrain 
such sheep or swine. 

Controversies. — Upon the application of either owner, 
after notice given as prescribed in this chapter, the 
fence-viewers shall determine all controversies arising 
under the sections relating to lawful fences and parti- 
tion fences made hog and sheep tight. 

HOMESTEADS. 
The homestead of every family, whether owned by the 
husband or wife, is exempt from judicial sale, unless 
there is a special provision of the statute to the contrary. 
A homestead in this state comprises a house used as a 
home by the owner, and if he has two or more houses 
thus used, he may select which he will retain, to include 
one or more contiguous lots or tracts of land with the 
buildings and other appurtenances thereon habitually 
and in good faith used as a part of such homestead. If 
within a city or town it must not exceed one-half acre 
in extent, otherwise it must not contain in the aggregate 
more than forty acres, but in either case, if the value is 
less than five hundred dollars, it may be increased until it 
reaches that amount. It must not comprise more than one 



78 farmers' friend 



dwelling house or any other buildings except those that 
are proper appurtenances thereto. The owner, husband 
or wife, may select the homestead and cause it to be plat- 
ted, but a failure to do so would not render the same 
liable. When it is so selected it shall be marked off by 
prominent and visible monuments, and the description 
thereof with the plat shall be filed and recorded by the 
county recorder in the homestead book. 

Any creditor of the owner may apply to the district 
court and upon proper proof may have the homestead 
fixed and established, and the judgment therein shall 
be filed and recorded the same as though the selecting 
was done by the owner. The owner is privileged to 
change the limits of his homestead by metes and bounds 
as well as the record of the plat and description. 

No conveyance or encumbrance of or contract to con- 
vey or encumber the homestead, if the owner is mar- 
ried, is valid unless the husband and wife join in the 
execution of the same joint instrument. 

The homestead is liable for debts contracted prior to 
the acquisition, but in such case it may not be sold un- 
less all other property of the debtor is first exhausted. 
It may be sold for debts created by written contract exe- 
cuted by the persons having the power to convey. It is 
subject to mechanics' lien for work or labor done or fur- 
nished exclusively for its improvement. Upon the death 
of either husband or wife the survivor may continue to 
occupy the old homestead unless it is otherwise ordered 
by the Court. 

HOMESTEADS UNDER UNITED STATES 
LAND LAWS. 

1.. Any citizen of the United States, the head of a 
family of the age of twenty-one years and over, or a 
person who has filed his declaration of intention to "be- 
come such citizen, may secure a homestead upon the un- 
appropriated public lands belonging to the government 
which are subject to pre-emption. 160 acres if such 
lands are subject to pre-emption at $1.25 per acre, and 



farmers' friend 79 



80 acres of land which is subject* to pre-emption at $2.50 
per acre; such lands to be of legal subdivision of the 
public lands and can be located only after they are sur- 
veyed. 

2. The person desiring to secure such homestead 
must make an affidavit before the register of the land 
office in which the land, upon which he desires to make 
his entry is located, that he is the head of a family, and 
is twenty-one years or more of age, or has performed 
service in the army or navy of the United States; that 
his application is made for his own exclusive use and 
benefit, and that his entry is for the purpose of actual 
settlement and cultivation and not either directly or in- 
directly for the use and benefit of any other person, per- 
sons or corporation. Upon filing such affidavit with the 
register on payment of $5.00 for 80 acres and $10.00 
for 160 acres he shall be allowed to enter the amount 
of land specified. 

3. No certificate or patent can be issued until the 
expiration of five years from the date of such entry, and 
within two years after the expiration of said five years 
the party making the application must prove by two 
disinterested witnesses before the register of his land 
office that he has actually occupied and cultivated and 
improved said land as a homestead for the space of 
five years prior to the making of such application. Upon 
making such proof to the satisfaction of the register 
he shall be entitled to his certificate and patent. 

4. The homestead right may be changed into a pre- 
emption and the land proposed to be homesteaded paid 
for at the regular government rate if the homesteader 
so desires. 

5. In case of the death of any person who would be 
entitled to a homestead, as hereinbefore stated, before 
he is able to prove up the same, his wife and children, 
or in case he leaves no wife, or she remarries, then his 
children may prove up on the land and secure the title 
thereto. 

6. Soldiers and officers who served in the army of 
the United States during the Eebellion for 90 days, and 



80 farmers' friend 



who were honorably discharged, are entitled to have the 
time of such service deducted from the time fixed by the 
statute upon which they must live upon the land. 

7. Homestead lands are not liable for debts con- 
tracted prior to the issuing of the patent therefor. 

8. Only one quarter section can be entered as a 
homestead. 

9. Persons who have entered less than 160 acres 
are entitled to enter enough more to make up the full 
limit, 

10. A widow, if unmarried, or minor children by 
their guardian, may enter homesteads, 

11. Persons may be absent from their homestead 
claims not exceeding one year, if such absence is occa- 
sioned by the failure or destruction of crops. 

12. The commissioner of the general land office may, 
for climatic reasons, in his discretion, allow the settler 
twelve months from the date of filing his application 
to commence his residence on his homestead. 

13. At the end of the third year of residence thereon, 
if the homesteader shall have under cultivation for two 
years one acre of timber, the trees whereof are not more 
than twelve feet apart each way, and in good thrifty 
condition, for each and every sixteen acres of such home- 
stead, may, upon due proof of such facts by two cred- 
ible witnesses, receive a patent for such homestead. 

14. Six months' absence from the homestead claim 
unexplained, forfeits the claim. 

15. Persons becoming insane before securing patents 
to their homesteads, can have the necessary proofs made 
by their legally appointed guardians or conservators. 



farmers' friend 81 



EXEMPTIONS. 

There shall be exempt to an unmarried person not the 
head of a family, and to non-residents, their own ordinary 
wearing apparel and trunk necessary to contain the 
same. 

If the debtor is a resident of this state and is the head 
of a family, he may hold exempt from execution the fol- 
lowing property: All wearing apparel of himself and 
family kept for actual use and suitable to their condition, 
and the trunks or other receptacles necessary to contain 
the same; one musket or rifle or shotgun; all private 
libraries, family Bibles, portraits, pictures, musical in- 
struments and paintings not kept for sale ; a seat or pew 
occupied by the debtor or his family in any house of 
public worship, an interest in a public or private burying 
ground, not exceeding one acre for any defendant; two 
cows and two calves ; fifty sheep and the wool therefrom 
and materials manufactured from such wool ; six stands 
of bees; five hogs and all pigs under six months; the 
necessary food for all animals exempt from execution 
for six months; one bedstead and necessary bed- 
ding for every two in the family; all cloth man- 
ufactured by the defendant not exceeding one hundred 
yards; household and kitchen furniture not exceeding 
two hundred dollars in value, all spinning wheels, looms, 
one sewing machine and other instruments of domestic 
labor kept for use; necessary provisions and fuel for 
family for six months; proper tools, instruments or 
books of debtor, if a farmer, mechanic, surveyor, clergy- 
man, lawyer, physician, professor or teacher; if the 
debtor is a physician, public officer, farmer or teamster, 
or other laborer,a team consisting or not more than two 
horses or mules, or two yoke of cattle and the wagon 
or other vehicle, with the proper harness or tackle, by 
the use of which he habitually earns his living, otherwise 
one horse: if a printer, a printing press and types, fur- 
niture and material necessary for the use of such print- 
ing press, and a newspaper office connected therewith, 
not exceeding in all the value of twelve hundred dollars ; 



82 FARMEES' FRIEND 



poultry to the value of fifty dollars, and the same to a 
woman whether the head of a family or not, and if the 
debtor is a seamstress, one sewing machine. If the 
debtor, being the head of a family, has started to leave 
this state, he will have exmpt only the ordinary wearing 
apparel of himself and family, and such other property 
in addition, to be selected by himself, in all not exceed- 
ing seventy-five dollars. No exemption shall extend to 
property against an execution issued for the purchase 
money of the same. The earnings of a debtor for his 
personal service at any time within ninety days next pre- 
ceding the levy are exempt. For real estate exemptions, 
see ''Homestead". 



EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS. 

The district court has original and exclusive juris- 
diction in the settlement of the estate of deceased per- 
sons. The court is always open for the transaction of 
probate business, but the hearing of any matter requir- 
ing notice may be done only in term time, or at such time 
and place as the judge may appoint. 



THE LAW GOVERNING THE SALE AND 
TRANSFER OF PROPERTY. 

1. A sale is the exchange of property for money, 
which is either paid at once or to be paid in the future. 

2. There are many complicated things pertaining to 
the sale of property which every thoughtful man should 
understand. 

3. The thing sold must either exist at the time of 
the sale or there must be a well-founded reason that it 
will be in existence and in possession of the seller. 



farmers' friend 83 



DRAINAGE. 




Tile Factory, Nevada, Iowa. 

The board of supervisors of any county has the power 
and authority at any regular or special session to es- 
tablish a drainage district or districts, and to locate and 
establish levees, and cause to be constructed any levee, 
ditch, drain or water course, or to straighten, widen, 
deei3en or change any natural water course, in such 
county, whenever the same will be of public utility or 
conducive to the public health, convenience or welfare; 
and the drainage of surface waters from agricultural 
lands shall be considered a public benefit and conducive 
to the public health, convenience, utility and welfare. 

Drainage. — Where a culvert for the drainage of water 
did not increase the quantity of water on plaintiff's 
land, or throw it thereon in a different manner than the 
same would naturally have flowed on it the Supreme 
Court of Iowa held there was no case for damages. 

This was the case where one neighbor tiled his land 
and emptied the water into the public road which fol- 
lowed the road to a culvert and then flowed onto the 
adjoining land. 

It should be well understood by every farmer that 
there is no law that gives a man the right to tile land 
in a direction other than is the natural water course. 
It is not lawful to increase the amount of water that 
naturally flows onto your neighbor's land by tiling land 
into a ditch that would naturally run in a different di- 
rection. 



84r farmers' friend 



You have a right to tile a pond and empty the tile 
at your line fence notwithstanding your neighbor might 
claim, had you not tiled, a part of this water would have 
evaporated and a part settled into the ground. The 
question for you to answer is are you positive you have 
carried no water upon your neighbor's land but that 
which fell upon land naturally having its outlet across 
your neighbor's farm. You have no legal right to go a 
single inch across the line in order to connect your tile 
with that of your neighbors, but you have a right to 
empty your tile at the line fence and let it take its course. 
Your neighbor has no right to obstruct the water in any- 
way. That is to your or anyone's detriment. 

No individual has the right to embank against the nat- 
ural flow from an inland stream when the effect 
may be to cast an increase volume of water upon the 
land of other proprietors to their injury. 

He may do so but must pay the actual damages when 
damages are proven. The above does not apply to cities 
and towns as they have certain required grades which 
necessitates certain fills, cuts, etc. 

It is impossible to set out in brief form the numerous 
provisions of the statutes of this state governing the 
ditching and draining of land. 



FARMERS FRIEND 



85 



HOW TO FIND THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF TILE. 

Fall per 100 feet. 

Gallons Per Minute. 









FALL 


PER 100 


FEET. 






SIZE OF TILE. 


lin. 


Sin. 


6 in. 


9 in. 


12 in. 


24 m. 


36 in. 


3-inch 

4-inch 

6-inch.. 

8-inch 

9-inch 


13 
27 
75 
153 

205 
267 
422 


23 
47 
129 
265 
355 
463 
730 


32 
66 
183 
375 
593 
655 
1033 


40 
81 
224 
460 
617 
803 
1273 


46 
93 
258 
529 
711 
926 
1468 


64 
131 
364 
750 
1006 
1310 
2076 


79 

163 

450 

923 

1240 

1613 


12-inch 


2551 



A large tile will carry more water according to its 
size than a small one. This is because there is less sur- 
face on the inside of the large tile compared with the 
size of stream, and therefore less friction. More 
water will flow through a straight tile than a crooked 
one having the same diameter. 

Examples A nine-inch tile at 6 inches fall to the 100 
feet will flow 593 gals, per minute. 

AREA AND WEIGHT OF TILE. 

The following table shows the area and the weight of 
the different sized tile: 



SIZE. 


WEIGHT. 


AREA. 


SIZE 


WEIGHT. 


AREA. 


3 -inch 


5-lbs. each. 

6 lbs. each. 

7-lbs. each. 
10 lbs. each. 
12-lbs. each. 


8f sq. in. 

9|-sq. m. 

14-sq. in. 
2H-sq. in. 
30i-sq. in. 


7-inch 


15-lbs. each. 
18 lbs. each. 
21-lbs. each. 
24-lbs. each. 
28-lbs. each. 


41 -sp. in. 
53i-sq. in. 
67 -sq. in. 
80^-sq. in. 
113 -sq. in. 


BHnch.... 


8-inch 


4 -inch 


9-inch 


5 -inch 


10-inch 


6 -inch 


12-inch.. 



86 



FAEMEKS' FRIEND 



THE AMOUNT OF PROPERTY THAT CANNOT BE 

TAKEN FOR DEBTS IN THE DIFFERENT 

STATES, AS WE FIND IT, JUNE, 1906. 

1. Exemption Laws are for the purpose of protect- 
ing those who are unable to pay their debts without 
causing distress to themselves and their families, 

2. Property covered by mortgage cannot be held. 

3. A safe estimate of the property of the person 
desiring credit should be made before credit is given. 

EXEMPTION LAWS. 



PERSONAL PROPERTY 




VALUE 

OF 
HOME- 
STEAD 


EXCEPTIONS AND 


STATES 


S 




s 


EXPLANATIONS 




$1,000 

1,000 

500 


$1,000 
none. 
200 
200 


$2,000 
4,000 
2,500 












California (a) 


5,000 
2,000 
1.000 


Must be designated as such in writ- 


Colorado (a) 




ing and recorded. 


ConDCCticut (a) 




200 


on record of deed. 


none, 
none. 






300 
1,000 

81,000 
from* 
100 
to 
500 
400 
500 
6006 






Florida 




60 acres of land in country, J acre 








in city. 


Idaho 




5,000 

1,000 
2,500 


Single, $1,000. (f) Homestead 


Illinois 


100 
200 


must be designated by a writing 
executed and recorded like a 
deed. 








No homestead except as before 








stated. 




800 






No limit as to value. 
160 acres in country, 1 acre in city. 






1,000 






2,000 




Homestead and personal property. 


Maine (c) 




500 


Written declaration must be re- 
recorded. 




100 
450 
500 
500 

250 




none. 
800 










40 acres in country, $1..500 in city. 
80 acres in country, J to 1 acre in 












2,000 


city. 
Written declaration must be re- 






corded. 
From $1,500 to $3,000 according to 








2,500 


size of city. 


Nebraska 


500 
from 




2,000 
[15,000 














corded. 



FARMERS FRIEND 



87 



EXEMPTION 


LAWS — Continued. 


PERSONAL PROPERTY 


VALTE 

or 

HOME- 
STEAD 


EXCEPTIONS AND 


STATES 


S 


c 




EXPLANATIONS 


New Hampshire (c) 






500 

1 000 


Also $500 homestead for single man 


New Jersey 


200 




(f). 


I'OOO 
1000 
1000 




New YorK 


250 

500 

1 500 






North Carohna 
North Dakota 


160 acres in country, or 2 acres in 


Ohio (c) 
Oklahoma (c) 






1,000 


city not exceeding $5,000 in value. 


160 acres in country, 1 acre in city. 








1 aOO 




Pennsylvania 
Rhode l^Kind 
South Carolina 
South Dakota 

Tennessee (c) 


7300 
200 
500 
750 


300 






none. 
1,000 

1000 


' 160 a'cres'in country, i acre n town, 
limit $5,000. 


Texas.. 

Utah (c) 


500 




200 acres in country, $5,000 in city 
$1,000 for debtor, $500 for wife. 




250 




500 
2,000 


$250 all members of family. 








Washington (e) 






2,000 
1,000 


Varies from $500 to $2,900 accord- 


West Virginia.. 

Wisconsin (c) 


200 




ing to profession or trade. 




40 acres in country, ^ acre in city. 




800 




1.500 











(a) Articles of specific property too numerous to 
mention, no value fixed, (b) Exemptions vary in dif- 
ferent counties. (*) In either personalty, realty or both. 
(X) In personalty or realty, (c) Articles of specific 
property too numerous to mention, varying in amount in 
different trades and professions, (d) Articles of spe- 
cific property, ranging in value from $100 to $500 (:{:) 
Read or personal, (e) Varying from $500 to $2,000 
according to trade or profession, (f ) A single man can 
claim homestead only in Idaho and New Hampshire. 



FARMERS' FRIEND 



HOW TO OBTAIN WEALTH. 

The way to make money is to save it. Always remem- 
ber and practice the maxim, "A dollar saved, a dollar 
earned. ' ' 

A small sum of money saved daily for fifty years will 
grow at the following rate: 

DAILY SAVINGS. 

One Cent $ 950 

Ten Cents 9,504 

Twenty Cents 19,006 

Thirty Cents 28,515 

Forty Cents 38,015 

Fifty Cents 47,520 

Sixty Cents 57,024 

Seventy Cents 66,528 

Eighty Cents 76,032 

Ninety Cents 85,537 

One Dollar 475,208 



FARMERS FRIEND 



89 



THE TIME IN WHICH DEBTS ARE OUTLAWED 

IN THE DIFFERENT STATES AND 

BRITISH PROVINCES. 

Corrected up to date, June, 1906. 

1. The time to sue varies in different States and in 
different classes of cases from one to twenty years. 

2. In case the debtor makes a written acknowledg- 
ment in a note, or papers of that character, the claim 
is renewed. 



STATES 

AND 

TERRITORIES 


z 


2 

i 
1- 


1 


i 

i 
< 

1 
o 


STATES 

AND 

TERRITORIES 


i 


2 

c 

1 
1" 


2 

1 


1 

1 
o 


Alabama 


yrs 

5 
5 
4 
6 
6 
6 
3 
3 
6 
5 
10 
10 
10 
5 
15 
5 
6 
3 
6 
6 
6 
6 
10 
8 
5 


^10 
5 
4 
4 
6 
17 
20 
12 
20 
20 
5 
10 
20 
10 
5 
15 
10 
20 

20 

10 
6 
6 

10 
8 

10 


yrs 
20 
10 

5 

5 

6 
17 
20 
12 
20 
10 

6 
20 
20 
20 

5 
15 
10 
20 
12 
20 
10 
10 

7 
10 
10 

5 


yrs 

3 
3 
2 
6 
6 
3 
3 
4 
4 
2 
5 
6 
■ 5 
3 
5 
3 
6 
3 
6 
6 
6 
3 
5 
3 
4 


Nevada.. 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina . 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oregon... 
Pennsylvania 
Rhode Island 
South Carolina .. 
South Dakota 
Tennessee 
Texas-__- 

Utah 

Vermont. 

Virginia. 

Washington 

W. Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Canada... 

New Brunsv ick 

Nova Scotia 


yrs 

6 
6 
6 
6 
3 
6 

15 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
4 
4 
6 
5 
6 

10 
6 
5 

6 
6 
6 


yrs 

20 
16 

6 
20 
10 

6 
15 
10 
20 
20 
20 
10 
10 

4 

4 

8 
10 

6 
10 
20 

5 

20 
20 
2 


yrs 

20 
20 

7 
20 
10 
10 
15 
10 
20 
20 
20 
10 
10 
10 

5 

8 
20 

6 
10 
20 

20 
20 


yrs 




fi 




6 


California 


4 




fi 




3 


Delaware 


fi 


Dist of Columbia 


fi 




fi 




fi 


Idaho 


fi 


Illinois 


6 
fi 


Iowa 


fi 


Kansas 


?. 




2 


Louisiana 


fi 


Maine 


?. 




5 


Mass chusetts . . 


5 


Michigan 


fi 




s 






Missouri 


fi 




fi 


Nebraska 


fi 







A note is considered a contract and in Iowa is good 
for ten years. Judgment note, twenty years. When 
any sum is paid on note it renews the note which extends 
it ten years. 

An open account in Iowa runs five years from time of 
last payment on same. 



92 farmers' friend 



SEED IMPROVEMENT. 

That the subject of seed improvement has been too 
much neglected in the past, by progressive farmers, is 
a fact which all will admit. However, with the increas- 
ing intelligence of the farming community, very many 
thinking, working farmers have been forced to acknowl- 
edge the need of more accurate information on the sub- 
ject of seed-breeding by means of crossing or hybridiza- 
tion. It is a subject not less in importance than the pro- 
duction of thoroughbred stock by such crosses and inter- 
mixture of blood as will tend to perfect development in 
the line of the objects sought to be attained. It is upon 
the recognition of this fact that I have, in the following 
paragraphs, endeavored to compile, from the most au- 
thentic sources, a series of facts bearing upon the subject 
of seed-breeding, with the view of inciting a still deeper 
and more abiding interest in the most practical methods 
of seed improvement. 

SEED CORN. 

From my experience and somewhat extended observa- 
tions in relation to the condition of seed corn after being 
saved, I am satisfied that carefully hanging up the corn 
in a crib or outhouse of any sort, even though it may not 
be exposed to dampness caused by storms, yet this is 
not sufficient to insure the best seed even when the corn 
is carefully selected, being the best specimens of the crop 
raised. 

The trouble is not because the corn is not sufficiently 
matured to grow, for it is a well-known fact that corn 
may be saved while still in the milk and if cured well 
and kept dry will make good seed, and on the other hand, 
corn that is well matured, if not kept under favorable 
circumstances, often turns out badly. It is my belief 
that it is the moisture in the corn, acted upon by the in- 
tense cold that does the mischief. 

Just what degree of cold such seed will stand without 
injury is impossible to tell correctly, and always varies 



THE COOK TROPHY. 




This trophy, costing $1,6U().()() was i)resented to the 
Iowa State College hy Mr. A. E .Cook, of Odebolt, Iowa, 
and is awarded annually at the International Live Stock 
Exposition to the winning corn-judging team from any 
Agricultural C^ollege. 



Under the initiative of Professor Holden and his helpers at the Iowa 
Agricultural college at Ames, the second Wednesday in October is hereafter 
to be set apart as seed corn harvest day, the obje'ct in view being to get the 
farmers of the state to take this day off and devote it to the selection of the 
earliest maturing, soundest and most perfect ears in their field. Gathered 
at this time, seed corn has time to dr\- out thoroughly before the heavy freezes 
come. In view of the intimate connection between timely selection of seed 
and vigor and germination power of the same and the effect of this upon 
the following season's stand and yield of corn the importance of setting 
aside this seed corn harvest day can hardlv be overestimated. 



The A B C of Corn Culture* 

OR, MAKING TWO NUBINS TO GROW WHERE ONLY ONE GREW 
BEFORE. 

By Prof. P. CI. Holden — Iowa State College. 

"And he gave it for his opinion, that whoever could make two ears of corn 
or two blades of grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before . 
wo21d deserve better of nnankind and do more essential service to his country 
than the whole race of politicians put together.— Dean Swift. 

THE WHITING TROPHY 




Planting and 
Cultivating 



Harvesting 
AND Storing 



Insects and 
Remedies 



Awarded annually by Hon. W. C. Whiting for the best 
ten ears of corn, any variety, exhibited ait the Short 
Course, held at Ames, Iowa, the first two weeks in Jan- 
uary, each year. Cost $450.00. 



farmers' friend 93 



with the condition of the seed, but one thing I 
do know and that is that a great deal of what is 
good seed, when jDut up, comes out in the spring as a 
very poor article, and in many cases but little more than 
one-third of it will ever sprout. In such cases the vitality 
has been destroyed by the cold. It may look well, and 
the farmer generally supposes it to be well dried out, but 
in this point he is mistaken. 

More or less trouble with seed corn is an old complaint, 
but such a general failure in the vitality of this seed dur- 
ing the last few years has been a great loss to farmers in 
general. The failure of seed corn is, indeed, a matter of 
considerable consequence, for with most farmers it is 
such a large crop that if it fails to turn out well it will 
shatter the profits for one year, at least, on the farm. 

The only safe way to insure the best seed corn in the 
spring is by using artificial heat. Place the corn in a com- 
paratively tight room and dry it thoroughly by the use of 
a stove. This does not require much labor or expense 
and what little is necessary will be amply paid for by the 
better results realized the following season. 

It should be remembered that corn that is saved early 
is not dry, and hanging it in the shade really retards its 
drying out, and if it is caught in this condition in a hard 
freeze while it is yet full of moisture, it will most cer- 
tainly destroy the vitality of the seed and render it use- 
less for planting purposes. 

The selection of seed from the proper specimens of 
plants is also quite important and not always attended to 
as it should be. Only the very best seed should be saved, 
and this can only be obtained from soil that is naturally 
good, but not excessively rich and highly fertilized, for 
such rich soil always develops foliage rather than fruit, 
and the seed is never as perfect or hardy as that ob- 
tained from ordinary fair-sized plants that are well cul- 
tivated and in good average condition. 

There seems to be a fascination about large-sized crops 
which interests all farmers; and this is, of course, quite 
a natural feeling, for the larger the yield the greater will 
be the profit realized, but it should be remembered right 



96 farmers' friend 



here that excellence is not always governed by magni- 
tude. This fact is quite noticeable with the small fruits 
and vegetables used on the table. Those that have re- 
ceived good, honest cultivation and are of a good, fair 
size are about as near perfect as can be obtained, but in 
cases where they have been cultivated on excessively rich 
land the vegetables grow very large and oftentimes are 
really not fit for table use. It would be much better 
to choose smoothness and symmetry rather than size. 

There are thousands of careless farmers throughout 
the country who should by all means, consider their own 
interests and give this matter of selecting the proper 
seed corn more attention, and should be more careful to 
preserve the vitality of such seed, for if this is done 
judiciously it will save them a great amount of useless 
worry, as well as both trouble and expense. 

The importance of selecting fifty or sixty of the choic- 
est ears and planting them on one side of our earliest 
planted field cannot be too strongly emphasized. Out of 
this seed patch the seed for next year's crop should 
be selected not later than October 20th, and hung up at 
once where it can dry out thoroughly before any severe 
freeze. 

Let us have a time and a definite plan for harvesting 
and storing our seed corn. One day devoted to the seed 
corn at the proper time may be worth more to us than an 
entire month of hard work next summer put onto a poor 
stand of corn 

THE GERMINATION TEST. 

There is no one thing which will do so much to in- 
crease the yield of corn on every farm as the making 
of a germination test of six or eight kernels from each 
ear of corn to be used for seed, and discarding those 
ears which show tvea^k or sickly root or stem sprouts. 
The most common mistake is to conclude that the seed 
is all right and does not need testing. Of two ears of 
corn planted in separate rows side by side, one may 
yield at the rate of more than eighty bushels and the 
other less than thirty bushels per acre. 




This hill of three vigorous stalks is from 
three different ears, each of which showed 
a strong vitality when tested in the germina- 
tion box. 



Four Stalks in One Hill. 
Two are from ears which showed strong 
germination test; the two at the right are 
from ears which showed weakness in the 
germination box. 




Fig- 25 — By testing six kernels from each ear we are able to detect the 
weak and worthless ears. No. i shows weak germination. In No. 3 three 
of the kernels sent out weak stem sprouts and none of them sent out main 
roots. No. 2 is a good example of vigorous germination. Ears No. i and 
3 should be thrown out. An ordinary examination of ear No. i would 
not reveal the weakness shown so plainly in the germination box. We cannot 
afford to plant ears like No. i ; it means eight hundred or one thousand weak 
stalks at best. 



r^ 



^) 


hH^^^iBiijini^^^H 


■' 'fVff^ 


l^ 





Fig. I — Root development of a single corn plant at time of "laying by." 
The roots do not run straight down from the stalk, as many suppose. Deep 
cultivation the first time over the field will not injure the corn; it will clean 
the ground and leave a good mulch. The experiments all show that deep 
cultivation after this alwavs reduces the vield. 



FARMERS^ FRIEND 99 



Of two stalks in the same hill, both having exactly the 
same opportmiities so far as soil, cultivation, etc., are 
concerned, one may produce a good ear of corn weighing 
a pound or more, while the other stalk will produce an 
almost worthless ear or none at all. The ear from which 
one of these kernels came was strong and vigorous and 
the other weak. The same difference which shows at 
harvest time between these two stalks also showed when 
the kernels first began to sprout and grow in the spring. 
So it is that by testing a few kernels from each ear in the 
spring we may detect the weak ones and discard them. 

One poor ear of corn discarded means not only the 
saving of waste land, but the saving of labor on nearly 
a thousand weak or worthless stalks. A few days spent 
during the month of March, when our time is otherwise of 
little value, in testing each ear of seed corn may be worth 
to us at harvest time more than a whole year's hard work. 
Let us remember, too, that we cannot injure our seed by 
testing it; we are running no risks; it costs but little 
time, and one person can put to test in one day enough to 
plant thirty acres. 

The method here described may not be the best one, 
yet it has proved most satisfactory to us in testing the 
seed each year for more than three thousand acres, and it 
is followed by thousands of farmers in Iowa. 

The farmer who adopts better methods this year is 
not only a better farmer himself in the future, but his 
methods, directly or indirectly, soon become the methods 
of the community. 

PEEPARING SEED COEN FOR THE PLANTER. 

After the germination test, the next step is preparing 
the corn for the planter. First, by removing the mixed 
kernels. In yellow varieties it can be done better before 
shelling and in white varieties after shelling, as the mixed 
kernels often do not show in white corn until the corn has 
been shelled ; second, by butting and tipping the ears of 
corn to insure the planter dropping the correct number 
of kernels in each hill. 

To be certain of getting the drop adjusted properly. 



LOFC 



102 farmers' friend 



twenty or thirty ears should be shelled separately and put 
into grades of large, medium and small kernels. The 
planter can then be tried with each grade and the proper 
plates selected for each grade. If the proper plates are 
not at hand, then those nearest may be calibrated to do 
the work as desired. This is very essential and it should 
be done before the rush of spring work begins. A small 
outlay for additional plates or a new planter may mean 
the difference between a good crop and a poor one. The 
planter must do the work properly. After the planter is 
tested and it is known what grades are wanted, the seed 
corn should be carefully shelled, put into sacks and prop- 
erly labeled. 

The planter can be adjusted to drop the different 
grades in a uniform manner if the grades are kept sep- 
arate and the proper planter plate used for each grade, 
but if these different sized kernels are mixed and 
dropped miscellaneously it will be impossible to secure 
a uniform number of stalks per hill. 

We cannot afford to neglect this important work. If 
every farmer in the state would test every ear of his seed 
corn this winter in the way described above the yield 
would be wonderfully increased. No other time will be 
so profitable to the farmer as that time spent in testing 
the vitality of his seed and in grading it to insure the 
l^lanter dropping the proper number of kernels in each 
hill. It is possible for every one to do this work. It 
will cost nothing but the time, of which there is plenty 
at this season when the work should bevdone. Every far- 
mer should realize the importance of testing every ear 
of his seed corn before spring work begins. No possible 
loss can come from it and it will insure a good stand of 
corn which is absolutely essential, if the best results are 
to be secured from the year's hard work. One day spent in 
March on the seed corn, may be worth more than a month 
of hard work in the field, later. Without good seed, the 
after labor is of little avail. Nothing is more depressing 
or discouraging than a poor stand of corn. If the seed 
is carefully tested and only good seed planted there are 
no risks to run except those made necessary to every one 




GOOD SHAPES OF EARS. 

Fig. 7 illustrates good form of ears. These ears are well-proportioned. 
Their butts and tips are good. The rows are straight and the kernels uniform. 
The ears are full in the middle parts, showing strength, constitution, and good 
breeding. It is very essential that an ear show fullness in the middle portion, 
as this is the place where the greatest quantity as well as the best quality 
of corn will be found. Ears i and 2 would plant well together. Ears 3 and i 
are slightly better in shape than 2 and .].. 




The above cut illustrates one of the best and safest methods of storing seed 
corn. Ten or twelve ears are tied in a string and hung on some wires sup- 
ported by other wires from the rafters. 

The 21 strings of seed corn shown in the cut require a space less than six 
feet long by twenty inches wide, and yet this amount of seed will plant more 
than fifteen acres. 

The advantages of this method of storing are first: that it gives better 
protection from mice than where it is spread on the floor or corded in piles 
or put in racks. Second, it gives better circulation of air which allows the 
corn to drv out quickly and thoroughly, thus protecting it from moulding and 
sprouting and from being frozen while it is sappy. The greatest enemy to 
good seed corn is hard freezing while it still contains moisture, consequently 
there is more danger from late harvesting than from too early harvesting. 
However, it is not a good plan to harvest the seed in September while the 
corn is immature, as it is more difficult to preserve, and will be chaffy and 
give weaker plants than corn which has been allowed to fully mature on the 
stalk 



farmers' friend 103 



from the conditions of tlie weather, etc., wihch cannot be 
controlled. It is during the bad seasons, when conditions 
are unfavorable that we most need the kernels with large 
deep germs of a bright cheerful color well-matured, and 
likely to give the most vigorous germination. 
It is essential to seek improved varieties of corn, but it 
is also important that better treatment be given to the 
seed that is to be planted. 

DO NOT IMPORT SEED CORN. 

If the test shows the seed to be weak and unreliable 
and it is necessary to secure other seed it should be ob- 
tained from some reliable neighbor who has a surplus. 

No farmer can afford to depend upon imported seed 
for the main part of his crop. If he is unable to secure 
a variety from his neighbors that has been grown and 
that has matured well in his locality and it becomes neces- 
sary to import seed, it should be secured from the short- 
est distance possible, east or west, as such seed is pref- 
erable to that grown in the north or south, but it is safer 
to import it from the north than from the south. The 
southern varieties will produce large stalks and heavy 
foliage, and the large deep kerneled ears will be late in 
maturing. Northern grown corn will be smaller in ear 
and finer in stalk, but will mature earlier. Seed corn 
imported from a distance and especially from a southern 
latitude, seldom gives satisfactory results the first two 
or three years, even though the seed be of the best, which 
oftentimes is not the case. 

It is well known that most of the seed corn put on the 
market by seedsmen is bought of farmers in crib lots, 
shelled, screened and sacked ready for sale, little or no 
attention being paid to the selection. In fact it is gener- 
ally handled with a scoop shovel and is known as the 
"scoop shovel method of selection". 

The chances are that the farmer has in his own crib 
better corn than that which he purchases from seedsmen 
at four or five times the market prices. And then he runs 
the risk of it not maturing in his locality. 



104 farmers' friend 



If it were simply a matter of losing the price of the 
bushel of imported seed corn, it would not be so serious, 
but when we consider that a bushel of seed corn ought to 
produce four hundred bushels of corn, worth from one 
hundred and thirty to one hundred and sixty dollars, 
the serious nature of the question is very apparent. 

SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN. 

One of the best plans is to begin this spring by select- 
ing fifty or one hundred of the very best ears in your 
seed corn, while you are making the test of germination. 
These ears should then be butted and tipped and each ear 
shelled by itself and carefully studied. The kernels should 
have a bright, cheerful appearance, be full and plump 
at the tips and have a large clear germ, otherwise they 
should be discarded. It is very important that this 
choice seed should be planted at the time of 'the first 
planting, putting it on the south or west side of the field, 
unless there is danger that it would become mixed from 
some neighbor's corn nearby. In this case, it may be 
put on the other side of the field. The important thing 
is to get it in early and, if possible, on fall plowed ground. 
This will allow the corn to become thoroughly matured 
early next fall. The great importance of this cannot be 
overestimated. It is the late maturing corn that is 
caught by the freezes, as there is not sufficient time for it 
to dry out. 

All the seed corn for the next crop should be selected 
from this patch which was planted from the very best 
ears. It is a very common practice to select the occa- 
sional good ears found throughout the entire husking 
season. There are three important reasons why this 
should not be done. In the first place, we are more likely 
to neglect the work until too late, when we find ourselves 
without good seed for the next year. Again, we often be- 
gin harvesting from the poorest portions of our fields first 
for early feeding, as this corn is more likely to be soft 
and will not crib well. It should be remembered that the 
occasional good ears which are harvested throughout the 



farmers' friend 105 



entire husking season have necessarily been fertilized to 
a greater or less extent by pollen from the scrub stalks 
and those which are perhaps barren. In other words, 
we have simply selected a good female, but know nothing 
of the character of the male stalks from which the pollen 
came that fertilized the kernels. On the other hand, if 
our seed is all selected from the seed patch planted only 
from the very best ears, we are much more certain of 
good parents on both sides. It is a good practice and 
one followed by many corn growers to go through this 
seed patch of three or four acres planted from this fifty 
or sixty best ears of corn, after it has been "laid by" 
and before the tassels appear, and to cut out all the weak 
aiid sickly stalks and those that are too tall and late or 
too short and early and in this way prevent them from 
producing pollen to fertilize the kernels of other ears. 

One of the most serious results from depending on the 
occasional good ear found throughout the entire husking 
season is that manyof the fields are late and the corn 
immature and the husks will prevent the corn from dry- 
ing out properly and, as a consequence, it is frozen be- 
fore it is husked or, at least, before it has had time to dry 
out after husking. Again, we often begin harvesting out 
poorest fields first and delay saving seed until we come 
to our "best fields". 

If every ear of corn that is to be used for seed in Iowa 
next year could be harvested this fall not later than Octo- 
ber 10th, and hung up where it will dry out thoroughly 
before the bitter cold freezes of November it would add 
millions of dollars to the wealth of Iowa. 

Let us go into the best and earliest planted fields, and 
select well matured ears from the most vigorous stalks, 
strip off their husks and hang in the attic at once where 
the circulation of air is good and protection is had from 
the cold freezing weather of November and December. 
On the 228,000 Iowa farms an average of about 40 acres 
is devoted to the growing of corn, and while six bushels 
of good seed is sufficient to plant ^his, let us abundantly 
provide ourselves and save two or three times this 
amount, as some pests may call upon us to replant, or our 



106 farmers' friend 



neighbor may be needing some seed. Remember, it takes 
only about a dozen ears to plant an acre. Each ear 
should have special care. 

POOR STAND OF CORN. 

A '^poor stand" of corn is responsible more than any- 
thing else, for the low average yield in the central west. 
The ground may be rich, the preparation good, and the 
corn receive the best of cultivation, but if the stand is 
poor the yield will be correspondingly poor. 

Careful counts of the number of stalks per hill were 
made last year in more than a thousand differ- 
ent corn fields and it would be safe to say that 
there were not to exceed sixty-six per cent, of 
a perfect stand on an average and in some cases 
it fell as low as forty per cent. This means that 
the state devoted nearly 9,000,000 acres to corn, and pro- 
duced only a 6,000,000 acre crop, or, to put it in another 
way, with a perfect stand the present average yield of 
thirty-two bushels would be increased to fifty bushels per 
acre or an increase to the sate of 153,000,000 bushels. 
This does not take into consideration the increased yield 
made possible through the use of improved varieties, bet- 
ter bred seed, elimination of barren stalks by means of 
breeding, better methods of cultivation, etc. 

The real seriousness of the situation will be more ap- 
parent from the following counts illustrating the stand 
in the poorer, medium, and better fields of Iowa. The 
following figures illustrate the number of stalks per hill 
in the poorer fields : 22203201301113110 
23012100213. Each of the first three hills had 
two stalks, the fourth hill was missing and the next had 
three stalks, etc. 

That the results might be as accurate as possibe, counts 
similar to the above were made in three places in each 
field. The hills were taken just as they came in the row 
and generally crosswise of the way the corn was planted. 
The field above represents only fifty- two per cent, of a 
stand of corn. Twenty-five per cent, of the hills were 



farmers' friend 107 



missing. Thirty-five per cent, had one stalk, twenty-five 
13er cent, had two stalks and twenty per cent, had three 
stalks per hill. If the poor stand was largely due to seed 
of low vitality, which is generally true in case of very 
poor stands, then the same influence which killed a por- 
tion of the seed must also have greatly weakened that 
which did grow, and, as a consequence, the yield is even 
much less than what is represented by the stand. 

The above represents what is found in hundreds of 
corn fields everj^ivhere in Iowa. Many fields were found 
in which the stand was as low as forty per cent. The 
following will illustrate very closely the average stand 
in the state: 2312101133131222303120 
2 12. On the average soil of the state this would rep- 
resent about sixty-five per cent, of a stand of corn. 
Twelve per cent, of the hills were missing, twenty-eight 
per cent of the hills had one stalk, thirty-two per cent, 
of tlij hills had two stalks, and twenty-eight per cent of 
the hills had three stalks. The following represents the 
stand in some of the very best fields in the state : 3 4 3 2 
133332333323333 3333 3. In this field, 
there were no hills missing, four hills had one stalk, 
twelve had two stalks, seventy-six had three stalks, and 
eight hills had four stalks. 

This represents not less than ninety-five to ninety-six 
per cent, of a perfect stand. 

If we go into our fields at husking time and make a 
study of the stand of corn, we will be convinced of the 
serious losses to ourselves and to the state each year 
from a poor stand of corn. 

VARIETY TEST OF CORN. 

In 1905, the Agricultural Department of Iowa Agricul- 
tural College, secured seed from more than ninety differ- 
ent sources. The corn was all collected from farmers 
living within a radius of ten miles from Ames. In order 
to secure samples of corn actually planted, the farmers 
were visited and the corn taken either directly from the 
planter boxes in the field or from the sacks from which 
the seed corn was being i3lanted. 



108 farmers' friend 



The samples were planted by hand, three kernels per 
hill, and the experiment was repeated three times and 
treated alike in every respect, throughout the season. 

The following table gives the yield per acre of the six 
highest yielding samples and also of the six lowest yield- 
ing samples: 

Six Highest Yielding Samples. Bushel per Acre. 

Sample No. 59 80.5 

Sample No. 58 80.0 

Sample No. 66 78.5 

Sample No. 71 77.0 

Sample No. 138 75.0 

Sample No. 68 75.0 

Average 77.5 

Six Lowest Yielding Samples. Bushel per Acre. 

Sample No. 44 31.5 

Sample No. 132 33.5 

Sample No. 36 34.5 

Sample No. 32 36.6 

Sample No. 29 37.5 

Sample No. 33 40.0 

Average 35.6 

Note particularly the wide range in yield from 80.5 
bushels per acre to 31.5 bushels or a difference of 49 
bushels. The average yield of the six highest samples 
was 77.5 bushels, while the average of the six lowest yield- 
ing samples was 35.6 bushels, or a difference of 41.9 
bushels per acre. 

This great difference in yield was due largely to the 
difference in vitality of the seed, as in every case the 
low yielding samples had given a poor stand. It 
strongly emphasizes the great importance of knowing 
that the seed to be planted will give a good, strong, vig- 
orous germination. 

TESTING EACH YEAE OF CORN. 

There is, perhaps, no one thing which will do so much 
to increase the yield of corn on every farm as the testing 
of each ear to be used for seed. This should be done 
before the rush of spring work begins or it is likely to 
be neglected. 




POOR EARS. 



No. I is a fairly well shaped ear, has been well fertilized and will give a 
good proportion of corn to cob. Its utter ack of uniformity of kernels, how- 
ever, makes it a very undesirable ear for seed. Note the irregularity of the 
rows, the variation in the size, shape and dent of kernels. Such an ear should 
never be used for seed. 

No. 3 shows a spiral arrangement of rows with thick blocky kernels, lacking 
in uniformity. The tip is weak and the whole ear, through ack of proper pro- 
portion indicates weakness and lack of breeding. 



farmers' I'RIEND 113 



The importance of discarding ears that refuse to grow 
or show a weak germination is apparent when we realize 
that one ear will plant one-fourteenth to one sixteenth 
of an acre. 

The most practical way for testing the germination of 
each ear is by using a germination box. This is a sim- 
ple affair and can be made by any one in an hour's time. 
Any box about six inches deep and 2x3 feet in size may 
be used. Fill the box about half full of moist sand, dirt 
or sawdust, well pressed down, so that it will leave a 
smoothj even surface. In case sawdust is used it should 
be put in a gunny sack and set in a tub of warm water 
for half an hour or so that it will be thoroughly moistened 
before using. Take a white cloth about the size of the 
box, rule it off, checker-board fashion, one and a half 
inches each way. Number the checks 1, 2, 3, and so on 
and place it over the saw dust and tack to the box at the 
corners and edges. Lay out the ears to be tested, side 
bj" side on the floor; remove one kernel from near the 
butt, middle and tip of the ear; turn the ear over and 
remove three kernels from the opposite side, in like man- 
ner, making six kernels in all, thus securing a sample 
from the entire ear. Place the six kernels at the end 
of the ear from which they were taken. Use care that the 
kernels do not get mixed with the kernels from the ear 
next to it. After the kernels are removed, boards may 
be laid over the rows of corn to keep them in place until 
the germination is known. Place the kernels from ear 
of corn No. 1 in square No. 1 of the germination box; 
from ear No. 2 in square No. 2, and so on with all of the 
ears. Then place over this a cloth considerably larger 
than the box ; cover with about tw'o inches of moist sand, 
dirt or sawdust and keep in a warm place where it will 
not freeze. The sitting-room will perhaps be the most 
suitable place. The kernels will germinate in four to 
six days. Then remove the cover carefully to avoid mis- 
placing the kernels in the squares, (a piece of thin cloth 
placed over the kernels before the covering is put on 
will prevent the kernels from sticking to the upper cover). 
Examine the kernels in the germinating box; for exam- 



114 farmers' friend 



pie, the kernels in squares No. 1, 11 and 20, have failed 
to grow and some of the kernels in squares 2, 3, 4, 9, 12 
and 15 have refused to grow or show weak germination. 
The corresponding ears should be rejected. The ears 
showing weak germination should be treated the same 
as worthless ears. 

A FEW OF THE LEADING VARIETIES OF CORN. 

BOONE COUNTY WHITE. 

This corn is a standing testimony to the good work of 
Mr. James Riley. Mr. Riley lived in Boone County, 
Indiana, and has rendered a valuable service to the world 
by his work in the breeding of corn. Mr. Riley had a 
large variety of corn known as the White Mastodon. In 
1876 he picked over his seed of this corn, selecting for 
what he believed a desirable type of corn. He planted 
this special seed in an isolated field, and began changing 
the large, coarse type of white corn by selection. After 
several years of careful study and selection he produced 
the type of white corn he desired to raise, and named it 
after his home county. 

The kernel is a large, broad, deep kernel, approaching 
the broadly rounded wedge type, with a good full tip, up- 
right attachment at cob and fitting well together in the 
row from tip to crown of kernel. The dent type is mod- 
erate to deep creased dent with slightly roughened pro- 
jections. There should be no approach to the pinched 
dent, as this reduces the thickness of the kernel crown, 
an undesirable feature in the Boone County White. This 
corn is one of the largest of the white varieties, and 
therefore must have a longer season to mature than the 
Silver Mine. The shape of the ear is slowly tapering, 
length approaches ten inches and has an average circum- 
ference of seven and one-half inches. It matures in from 
one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and thirty- 
five days. It is well adapted to the southern half of the 
corn belt — that is, south of a line drawn through Bur- 
lington, Iowa. 



farmers' friend 115 



• Mr. Riley seems to have been one of the first corn 
raisers who sought to increase the productiveness of his 
corn by cutting out the barren stalks, improving both 
the yield and quality of his corn. When the type he 
sought to fix has been modified by both the grower and the 
region where grown, still it remains one of the most 
distinct and best varieties of white corn, with well-shaped 
kernels, firmly set on a medium to large-sized cob. It 
is especially well adapted to rich, strong soils and to 
river bottoms. It does not stand drought as well as the 
Silver Mine, but is a large yielder under favorable con- 
ditions. It requires a long season to mature, but ripens 
well in the south half of Indiana and Illinois and in the 
very southern part of Nebraska, the south-western part 
of Iowa and through Missouri and the eastern part of 
Kansas. 



RILEY S FAVORITE 

This variety is a yellow dent corn originated by Mr. 
James Riley in 1885. Mr. Riley desired a larger corn 
than the Pride of the North, quite generally raised in 
the northern portions of the dent-corn belt, yet one that 
would mature in his locality in Indiana. He therefore 
crossed two varieties, producing a hybrid corn. This he 
carefully planted year by year in an isolated place. Here 
he gave it the best of culture, cut out the diseased, weak 
stalks, permitting only the hardy and more vigorous 
stalks to bear pollen. Mr. Riley named this variety 
"Riley's Favorite", and sought by selection to fix a type 
of desirable yellow corn that would mature in but little 
more than one hundred days. For this reason he se- 
lected for seed a medium-sized ear with small cob from 
a stalk of medium height. He and others have found 
much trouble in fixing a definite type of this corn. There 
seems to be a tendency to revert to one or the other of 
the crossed types. 

The type Mr. Riley seems to have sought was a dent 
corn with a slowly tapering ear nine inches long, seven 
inches in circumference; rows distinctly paired and 



116 



FARMERS FRIEND 



straight; number of rows fourteen to eighteen, with six- 
teen as an average ; pinched dent, with tendency of ker- 
nels to be beaked ; kernels straight, wedge shaped, with a 
moderately rounded tip; cob red and small; shank attach- 
ment to stalk medium to small ; color of grain a clear yel- 
low. Matures in one hundred to one hundred and fif- 
teen days. 

It is not possible, nor would it be profitable to go into 
an extended description of the multitude of different vari- 
eties of corn in the United States, but enough has been 
said to show how some of the best varieties have been 
developed. 

Not more acres of corn, but ' ' another nubbin of corn to 
each hill", should be the motto of everj^ farmer in the 
corn belt. 

One small ear of corn to each hill on the 3,556 hills 
per acre will make a yield of thirty-eight bushels. 

Mr. Robert Reid moved from Brown County, Ohio, to 
Tazewell County, Illinois, in the spring of 1846. He 
brought with him a variety of corn known at that time 
as Gordon Hopkins corn. This was a reddish-colored 
corn grown quite generally in the Red Oak settlement, 
where Mr. Reid lived. 

Mr. Reid planted this corn on his newly purchased 
farm near Delavan, Illinois. It was late in the spring 
before it was planted, and his harvest showed immature 
corn, though it gave a fair yield. Mr. Reid selected the 
best of it for seed the next year, but on account of the 
immaturity of the corn he had a poor stand. The field 
was replanted, or rather planted in with seed of the Little 
Yellow corn. It thus became mixed corn, but was kept 
pure from that time onward. Thereafter, from 1847 to 
date, fifty-seven years, this corn has been carefully se- 
lected for certain characteristics. 

The peculiar dimple dent and shape of kernels with 
creased germs, the shape of ear, remarkable filling out of 
tips and butts, the high per cent of corn to cob and a 
finished or cultured appearance are among the strongest 
characteristics of the Reid's Yellow Dent corn. 



farmers' friend 117 



Occasionally a very deep yellow, or even reddish yel- 
low, appears, but generally the grain is a light or pale 
yellow. There is seldom but little soft corn, even the 
nubbins being solid. The original type sliows a tapering 
ear, small and poorly filled out, with a small number of 
rows of kernels. 

This offers one of the best illustrations of the value of 
intelligent selection. This variety is one of the best bred 
varieties of yellow dent corn. The original type of ker- 
nel was of the shoe peg style with the dimple dent. This 
seems to be giving place to a broader kernel and an elon- 
gated rather than a dimple dent. The former kernel has 
a smooth seed coat. There is a uniformity of color, fin- 
ish and shape of ear which has made it a great favorite 
in the ring. During the last few years Mr. Eeid has 
been breeding toward a rougher type, which gives a 
deeper kernel and a larger, later corn. 

This corn has sometimes been known as the ''World's 
Fair" corn since the Chicago Exposition in 1893, where 
it won first prize. During the last few years it has come 
into prominence, and is now extensively grown in cen- 
tral Illinois and is rapidly extending westward. In Ill- 
inois it is considered a medium-early corn. It seems to 
be well adapted to the north-central portion of the corn 
belt. This would be represented by the region lying be- 
tween Bloomington and Chicago and by the south half 
of Iowa, although many parties are growing it success- 
fully as far north as Mason City Iowa. This variety 
has won more premiums in the great corn contests than 
all the other varieties put together. 



FREEZING OF CORN. 

Indian corn is the most succulent of all the grains, and 
the fact that it is late in ripening makes it especially 
liable to injury by frost. Corn leaves are hurt by even 
light frosts if the stalks are not previously cut. Just as 
soon as connection with the root is severed the foliage 
dies out rapidly, or rather much of it is concentrated in 



118 farmers' friend 



the ear and husk to ripen and mature the grain. Ex- 
periments made with corn stripped from the stalk after 
it has hardened show some gain in weight of that cut 
up at the same time and left on the stalks in the usual 
way. Probably this passing of sap from the stalk to the 
grain does not continue long after both are severed from 
the root. It is therefore safe to husk corn without fear 
of loss in a few days after cutting. The parting of the 
husks is the usual sign waited for; but this is rather to 
facilitate husking than because this is needed to have the 
corn get full development. If corn ripens late it is safer 
to go through it even before it is all ready to cut, and 
strip off enough of the best and earliest ears for seed, 
leaving the husks on. Hang these ears in a warm place 
and they will dry out before severe weather comes, so 
that freezing the germ will be impossible. Seed corn 
dried by fire heat makes unusually vigorous plants, and 
is worth this trouble even when crib-dried corn will grow. 

CHEAPENING THE PEODUCTION OF CORN. 

In all the departments of production the man who can 
afford to sell anything of a given quality and a given 
quantity, the cheapest, is the man who makes the quick- 
est sale and the most money. Hence the i^roblem of how 
to decrease the cost of the production of grass, grain and 
meats is the most important for the Western farmer just 
now. It is the solemn fact that ranchmen can produce 
scrubs and low grades cheaper than the granger, that is 
making cattle so low; that the Hindoo and the Dakota 
farmer can produce wheat cheaper than the farmer in 
the middle West, that makes wheat so low ; the fact that 
the Nebraska farmer can produce corn so low that makes 
corn raising for sale unprofitable in Iowa. 

It is not possible for the farmer to do as the railroads, 
the manufacturer, and m^ny of the merchants, pool their 
issues, limit production and keep up prices. 



farmers' friend 119 



LITTLE ''NUBBINS". 

Drudgery is labor without thought. 

Poor seed meaus poor stand and weak stalks. 

Getting our heads into the game is half the battle. 

The farmer who makes two ears of corn grow where 
but one grew before is a "public benefactor". 

There are many things which will reduce the yield of 
our corn crop even though we plant the best of seed. 

Cause of low yield — poor stand; stalks "fooling around 
all summer doing little or nothing"; these are the great- 
est causes of a low yield. 

The most precious thing in this world is the labor of 
a human being. Yet hours are wasted every day on 
vacant ground and worthless stalks. 

To make a good crop of corn requires good land, good 
seed, good care, and back of all these must be a great 
man, a man who mixes brains with his labor. 

No man has a moral right to himself and family, or to 
the community in which he lives, to guess that the 800 
kernels on an ear will grow and produce strong plants. 

"If the corn fields of the United States were mine and 
I could give but one order, that order would be, 'To test 
six kernels of corn from every ear of seed intended for 
planting'." 

Poor seed means missing hills, one — stalk hills, and 
weak stalks, producing little or nothing. It means 
wasted land and wasted labor. It means less than thirty 
bushels of corn per acre in the "corn belt", instead of 
forty or forty-five bushels. 

If every ear of corn intended for planting next spring 
was harvested not later than the middle of October and 
hung up in the attic where it could dry out thoroughly 
before the bitter cold freezes of November and December, 
millions of dollars would be added to the value of next 
year's corn crop. 



120 farmers' friend 



CORN IS KING; AMERICA'S GREATEST CROP. 



Rock Island Corn and Wheat Train Lecture by A. M. 
Ten-Eyck, Professor of Agronomy, K. S. A. C. 



Corn is distinctively an American crop, having its ori- 
gin in central Mexico, where the native plant still grows 
wild. The United States grows 80 per cent of the corn 
crop of the world, and produces more bushels of corn 
than of all other grains. The average production of 
corn in the United States during the five years ending 
1904 was 2173 millions of bushels, valued at 946 millions 
of dollars. The average farm price of corn has increased 
from 21.5 cents per bushel in 1896, the lowest average 
price ever received for corn in this country, to 44.1 cents 
per bushel in 1904. The average farm price of corn for 
the last five years, as given in the U. S. Agriculture 
Year-Book, is a fraction less than 45 cents per bushel. 
The production of corn in this country has trebled since 
1870, while the price per bushel has also advanced. 

The area suitable for the production of corn is to-day 
largely occupied; there can be no great enlargement of 
our corn-fields unless the ground be taken from some 
other crop; the only material increase over our present 
corn production must come through enriching the soil, 
improving the breeds of corn, and from better methods 
of tillage and cultivation. With the corn-producing 
area limited practically to its present acreage, with the 
increasing demand for corn at home for feed, food, and 
for the manufacture of the large number of commercial 
products now made from corn, with the foreign market 
for corn increasing, Mr. Phillips of Wall street fame 
is making no wild prediction when he says: "We shall 
never again return to the old prices of corn ; in my opin- 
ion 40-cent corn will represent its lowest price for the 
future. ' ' 



farmers' friend 121 



Although the total production of corn in the United 
States has increased three hundred per cent in the last 
thirty years, the average yield per acre has not in- 
creased, and as given in the Agriculture Year-Book is 
only 26.8 bushels per acre in 1904. The average yield 
per acre in the United States, for ten years, 1895-1904 
was 25.0 bushels, while in Kansas for the same period 
the average yield was only 21.65 bushels per acre. 

The opportunity for increasing ithe average yield of 
corn per acre is very great. One kernel of corn will 
produce an ear having from 800 to 1200 kernels. No 
other cereal grain is so productive. No crop which the 
farmer raises is more responsive to breeding and culti- 
vation than corn. Every intelligent effort which the 
farmer makes in selecting seed, in fertilizing the land 
and in improving the methods of planting and cultiva- 
tion is rewarded in both quality and quantity of grain 
produced. Improving the quality and increasing the 
yield of corn by planting well-bred seed and by practic- 
ing better methods of cultivation may be counted as 
almost clear profit. Mr. Luther Burbank, the great 
plant breeder of California, estimates that one extra 
grain to the head, one extra kernel to the ear, and one 
more potato to the hill woiiid increase the crops of the 
Nation, without extra cost, by 

1,500,000 bushels of barley, 
11,000,000 bushels of corn, 
15,000,000 bushels of wheat, 
20,000,000 bushels of oats, and 
21,000,000 bushels of potatoes. 

An increase of three bushels of corn per acre in Kan- 
sas would pay the State and county taxes (some $7,000,- 
000 per annum) and leave a margin of $800,000 for build- 
ing up our State institutions and making other public 
improvements. 

The most important factors in the production of any 
crop are feed, breed, and care or culture. Without a 
sufficient supply of available plant food and moisture in 
the soil it is not possible to produce large yields of corn, 
no matter how well bred the seed, even with the best 



122 farmers' friexd 



of culture. The plant must be fed. Hence, one of the 
most important problems in growing corn is maintaining 
the fertility of the soil. 

Much of the land of Kansas has already been cropped 
continuously with corn too long. Such land is "corn 
sick", the soil has become exhausted of its humus, com- 
pact in texture, filled with plant diseases and in- 
sects which prey upon the corn plant, and has 
finally reached that point where profitable crops 
can no longer be produced upon it without a 
change in the methods of farming. What the land 
needs more than anything else is a change of 
crops, and it will not do to simply sow wheat and other 
cereal grains for a year or two and return again to corn, 
since the small-grain crops are really greater exhausters 
of the fertility of the soil than is corn ; such land must 
be planted to grass and perrenial legumes, such as al- 
falfa and clover. 

Grass is a soil protector, a soil renewer, and a soil 
maker. It increases the vegetable matter in the soil, re- 
stores the humus, and improves the soil texture; while 
alfalfa and clover, by means of the bacteria which grow 
on the roots of these plants, actually increase the nitro- 
gen in the soil, which is i^e most essential element of 
plant food and the one most apt to become exhausted in 
the soil. Old worn-out land which has been seeded to 
grasses and legumes for a few years is largely restored 
to its virgin condition of tilth and fertility, and when 
broken will produce again large crops of corn and small- 
grain. 

Farmers should study more carefully the subject of 
rotation of crops and means and methods of maintain- 
ing the fertility of the soil. Barnyard manure should 
be more carefully saved and used. On the Kansas Ag- 
ricultural College farm, in the season of 1903, a good 
coat of barnyard manure applied to corn land and plowed 
under, increased the yield of corn 18 bushels per acre. 
It it not advisable to use chemical fertilizers and neg- 
lect other and cheaper means of restoring and maintain- 
ing the fertility of the soil. 



farmers' friend 123 



I cannot here go into a detailed discussion of soil till- 
age and cultivation. It has been truly said that "tillage 
is manure" to the soil. The plant food is stored in the 
soil in an insoluble or unavailable condition. By tillage 
the conditions are made favorable for the development 
of the soil fertility. The cultivation allows the entrance 
of the air, conserves the moisture, warms the soil, and 
makes favorable conditions for the growth of bacteria, 
and thus hastens the decomposition of organic matter 
and favors the chemical changes by which the unavail- 
able plant food is gradually made available for the use 
of crops. 

Weeds are robbers ; they waste the moisture and fer- 
tility^ of the soil, and thorough cultivation of the corn 
crop is necessary in order to keep the field clear of weeds. 
Water is the most essential part of the plant food; the 
rainfall, in time and amount, largely determines the 
yield of the crop. By keeping the surface mulch of 
mellow soil the water is retained in the soil and made to 
feed the crop. 

At several experiment stations shallow continuous cul- 
tivation of corn has given the largest average yields, as 
opposed to deep cultivation. Too deep cultivation not 
only injures the corn by destroying the roots, but during 
the period of cultivation it prevents the roots from feed- 
ing in the most fertile part of the soil. On the other hand, 
the practice of shallow cultivation may be carried too 
far; a relatively thick mulch of soil will conserve more 
moisture than a thin mulch. 

As regards the conservation of soil moisture, the early 
cultivation of corn may be shallow; a deep soil mulch is 
not required at that season of the year, since the weather 
is moist and cool and evaporation is not great ; but later 
in the season when the hot, dry days of July and August 
come the deeper mulch is necessary in order to keep the 
soil from drying out. Shallow cultivation early in the 
season also clears ithe ground of weeds better than 
deeper cultivation, and a thin mulch may favor the 
quicker warming of the soil in the spring. Loose soil is 
not so good a heat conductor as firm soil, and more heat 



124 farmers' friend 



can reach firm soil through a thin mulch than through a 
thick mulch. On the other hand, during the hot part of 
the season a thick mulch may act as a regulator of the 
soil temperature and prevent the soil from becoming too 
hot, as well as too dry. 

Cultivation experiments at the Kansas, Illinois, and 
North Dakota Experiment Stations have given results 
favoring shallow cultivation early followed by medium 
deep cultivation at the close of the season. Deep culti- 
vation as the corn was laid by seems to have conserved 
more moisture than shallow cultivation, and at the Kan- 
sas Station as an average for three seasons has given an 
average yield of 2.7 bushels of corn per acre above the 
yield secured by continued shallow cultivation. 

It pays to prepare a good seed-bed for corn as well 
as for wheat or other crops. As to whether level plant- 
ing or listing is best depends largely on the climate and 
soil. Throughout central Kansas the listing method is 
preferred ; the roots of corn planted in lister furrows lie 
relatively deeper in the soil than roots of level-planted 
corn, and in a dry climate or light soil corn planted in 
this way is better able to withstand drouth than level- 
planted corn. 

Perhaps less attention has been given to the breeding 
of corn and the selection of seed than has been given to 
the cultivation and maintaining of the soil fertilit}^ The 
work of the last few years, however, demonstrates that 
it is just as important to breed corn and wheat and other 
crops as it is to breed stock. Moreover, the effect of 
the breeding and selection of corn is as great and the 
results are much more quickly secured than in the breed- 
ing of stock. 

There is a great difference in the productiveness of 
varieties of corn. In 1903, in a test of 79 varieties at 
the Kansas Station, the yields of what were considered 
standard varieties varied from 30 to 89 bushels per acre. 
Similar results were secured in 1904. 

Different ears of corn not only vary in appearance and 
quality, but are very different in their prepotency or 
power of reproducing. The choice selected ears from 



FARMERS FRIEND 



125 



Keid's Yellow Dent corn, which were selected for unifor- 
mity and trueness to breed characteristics, showed as 
much difference in characters of plants on different rows 
as might be observed between different varieties of corn, 
and inl903 a difference of nearly 400 per cent in yield, 
(per cent figured on lowest yield) was produced by the 
same area of land planted with seed from individual 
ears. In 1904 the greatest range in yield with selected 
ears of this variety was a little over 80 per cent, while 
in 1905, after 3 years of careful breeding and selection 
a difference in the productiveness of individual ears, 
seed selected from the product of the best producing 
ears during previous years showed a variation in prod- 
uct of only 60 per cent. After three years' breeding, the 
ear test plot in 1905 yielded 18 per cent more corn per 
acre than was secured from the general field planted 
with first-grade seed selected from the generalcrop the 
year previous. 

The first step in corn improvement is the choice of a 
variety. Choose as pure a type of corn as it is possible 
to secure, a variety which is adapted for growing in the 
soil and climate of your section of the State. Choose a 
type of corn that is hardy, of good quality, and that 
yields well. From the tests at the State Experiment 
Station, the "native" Kansas corns, namely, varieties 
which have been grown a long time in the State, prove 
to be better producers than the best varieties imported 
from other States. Perhaps you are now growing in 
your locality the corn which is best adapted for growing 
there, and which will furnish an excellent foundation for 
a better breed of corn. 

Scientific corn breeding has only been practiced in this 
country since 1897, when Prof. P. G. Holden, at the Ill- 
inois Experiment Station, introduced the plan of indi- 
vidual ear breeding and demons/trated the importance of 
corn breeding to the farmers of that state and to the 
country at large. Among the pioneer breeders of corn 
are Learning, of Ohio. Reid, of Illinois, and Riley, of 
Indiana, and from their efforts and work we have the 
Reid.'s Yellow Dent, the Learning, and the Riley's Favor- 



126 farmers' friend 



ite corn. The Boone County White is another of the 
old standard varieties. These varieties of corn have 
proved to be good producers in many parts of Kansas, 
after the corn has been grown for several years and be- 
come adapted to the climate and soil. 

The Kansas Corn Breeders' Association, at its annual 
meeting, March, 1905, passed the following resolutions : 

Resolved, That the following varieties of Kansas corn 
be recognized by the Kansas Corn Breeders' Association 
as possessing merits which make them worthy of distri- 
bution and propagation in this State, namely, Hildreth 
(yellow dent), McAuley's White Dent, Hammett (white 
dent), Mammoth White Dent ,Kansas Sunflower (yellow 
dent), Griffing Calico and Hiawatha Yellow Dent. 

Resolved, That the following varieties of corn origi- 
nated in other states be recognized as suitable for plant- 
ing in this S-tate, provided the seed has been adapted 
to Kansas conditions and the corn has maintained its 
quality and productiveness after having been grown for 
five successive seasons in this State; namely, Reid's Yel- 
low Dent, Boone County White, Silver Mine, Legal Ten- 
der, Hogue's Yellow Dent, and Learning. 

Choose a field to grow seed-corn away from other 
fields. Give special preparation to the soil and special 
cultivation to the corn. Plant at itlie most favorable sea- 
son, using all efforts to produce as perfect a develop- 
ment of the corn as possible. If a field away from the 
general corn-field cannot be selected, 'then plant a strip 
through the middle of the large corn-field for the breed- 
ing plot. The average farmer may not be able to follow 
the individual ear system of breeding, but he can select 
out of his seed-corn a bushel or so of the choicest ears 
and plant this corn in a body by itself, as described 
above. 

Better select out 40 or 50 of the very choicest ears and 
plant the corn from each ear on separate rows. In this 
way the breeder is able to determine which are the best 
producing ears and select seed from these for future 
planting. 

When the corn is tasseling and beginning to silk, pass 



$i50.oo EAR OF CORN. 

The highest price ever paid for corn was paid Januar}- i6, 1907 at ihe 
farmers short course at the Iowa State College. A 19-ounce ear sold at $150 
for the single ear, or at the rate of $8,850 a bushel. D. L. Pascal of De Witt, 
its breeder, paid this phenomenal price. The auction was started by Mrs. 
Nellie Kedzie Jones of Michigan at $50. E. M. Wentworth of State Center 
was the next highest bidder, but compromised when the price exceeded all 
bounds of reason. The champion ear last year sold for $11 and was grown 
by H. J. Ross of Farragut, Fremont county, Iowa. 

The best ten ears ever gathered together according to Professor Holden 
were those of Eddison Bennett, which sold for $30 to Bennett Bros, of Ames. 



FARMERS FRIEND 



131 



through the field and remove the tassels from the stalks 
which show no appearance of a shoot and from every 
feeble and diseased stalk in order to breed only the 
best. In this way the farmer really selects his breeding 
corn plants, the same as he must select his breeding ani- 
mals. 

Seed-corn should be selected in the field so that the 
breeder may observe the stalk as well as the ear. Select 
for uniformity in stalk and ear, choosing ears which are 
well placed on vigorous leafy stalks. Select for uniform 
maturity of ears as well as for uniformity in itype, size 
and quality. 

Seed-corn should be stored, and cured in a dry, well 
ventilated room, and if the weather becomes damp and 
cold before the corn is fully dry, complete the drying by 
artificial heat. Corn well dried and kept in a dry place 
will not be injured by freezing. 

During the winter the seed-corn should be carefully 
sorted over and the breeding ears for next season's seed 
field selected. We have to-day score-cards for corn, by 
which the perfect ears of different varieties are required 
to conform to a certain standard as regards size, length, 
type, uniformity, etc. Perhaps the breeders have not 
yet learned to recognize all the vital points of a good ear 
of corn, but some of the characteristics which indicate 
good quality and high yield in corn are known. The ear 
should be of good size, symmetrical in form, with straight 
rows of long, well-dented, medium wedge-shaped kernels. 

A cylindrical ear allows for more kernels on a cob 
and a more uniform length in kernels. The tips should 
be well filled, and at the butts of the ears the kernels 
should swell out about the shank. The space between 
the crowns of the kernels should be narrow; also there 
should be no unoccupied space at the tips of the kernels 
where they enter the cob. The kernels should also be uni- 
form in color, either white, yellow, or red, according to 
the type and variety of corn which they represent. A 
large germ in the kernel indicates strength, vitality and 
high feeding value, since the germ of the kernel contains 



132 farmers' friend 



nearly all of the oil in the grain and is also rich in 
protein. 

A large yield of corn depends not only on the breed of 
corn, the fertility of the soil, and the cultivation of the 
crop, but it also depends upon the germination of seed, 
stand of corn, and number of ears produced per acre, 
as well as the type of ear and the type of kernel on the 
ear. It therefore becomes very important to plant vi- 
able seed, and every farmer should test the germination 
of his seed-corn before planting. 

The actual yield of corn per acre is usually far less 
than the estimated yield. For instance, with a perfect 
stand of corn, hills 3^ feet apart, and three stalks in the 
hill, with one good average ear to the stalk weighing f of 
a pound, the yield should be 128.5 bushels of shelled corn 
per acre. With ears weighing one pound apiece the pos- 
sible production from an acre of land, imder the con- 
ditions stated above, is 171 bushels. 

A 30-bushel crop of corn will just pay for the growing. 
When we consider the fact that a bushel of seed-corn will 
plant 8 acres, and is capable of producing, on good soil 
in the average season, with good average cultivation, 400 
bushels of corn, we begin to appreciate the value of this 
bushel of seed-corn. The farmer can aiford to do a great 
deal of work in growing seed-corn, selecting the seed ears, 
grading and scoring these ears, and testing the germina- 
tion of the seed previous to planting, that he may secure 
a good stand and insure the production of a profitable 
crop. 

THE MAGNITUDE OF IOWA'S 1906 CORN CROP. 

The real magnitude of Iowa's corn crop is sized up by 
Dr. A. B. Storms, president of the Iowa State College, 
as follows : ''We will suppose that the 297 million bushels 
of corn produced in Iowa in 1906 is piled up in one pile 
in Des Moines and that it is to be loaded into wagons, 
allowing 50 bushels to each wagon. Let the wagons start 
west allowing 30 feet to each wagon so as to avoid col- 
lisions. The head wagon when going into Council Bluff° 



farmers' FRIEND 133 



will still be going and others will still be driving up in 
Des Moines to be loaded. The head wagon will go on to 
Denver through a pass in the mountains and finally reach 
the Golden Gate and yet there will be corn in Des Moines 
and teams will be loading. We will suppose an imag- 
inary road across the Pacific with the head wagon ap- 
proaching Hawaii; it passes on to our eastern posses- 
sions, through Japan, into Asia, through Europe, over 
the Atlantic and on to New York and still Iowa men will 
be loading corn in Des Moines. Let the head man pass 
up Wall street on to Philadelphia through the states of 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana to Chicago, on to the Mis- 
sissippi and through Iowa to Des Moines and still the 
haulers will be loading Iowa's 1906 crop. The leader 
passes on through Des Moines westward towards Denver 
and is well on his way across the great Rockies before 
the last wagon is loaded and the supply of Iowa's 1906 
crop is all gone." 



STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF 
NEBRASKA. 

INCREASING YIELDS OF CORN BY 
SELECTION OF PLANTS. 

In the past, most of the efforts to improve corn have 
been in the direction of improving the type of ear, and 
much good has been accomplished in this way. But 
type alone is not a sure guide to the yielding power of 
a variety. We may take two ears of the most approved 
type, looking as nearly alike as possible, plant them in 
separate plats, and the yield of one may be twenty-five 
per cent more than the yield of the other. The difference 
in productiveness cannot be learned by examining the 
ears, but only by planting each ear separately and meas- 
uring its yield. During three years past we have prac- 
ticed the "individual ear" method of seed selection, 
each ear being planted in a row by itself and the yield 



134 farmers' friend 



taken. To show the variation in the yield from different 
ears on the same soil, and under similar treatment, there 
is given below as an example the yield of ten adjacent 
rows, each planted with a different ear : 

Table XIII. — Yields from different seed ears. 



Row No. I 16 I 17 



18 19 



20 



21 22 23 



1 1 

48.2155.2156.8 



24 



25 



Yield per acre in | | 
bushels |68.7|73.9 



I 
44.3|35. 



81.6 



80.0 



76.8 



In these ten rows the yield varied from 35.6 to 81.6 
bushels, a difference of 46 bushels per acre. 

The general plan followed in this method of corn breed- 
ing is to select about 100 good ears of corn and plant 
each in a row by itself. Marked differences will often be 
noticed between the rows from the time they come 
through the ground until harvest time. One row may 
be two feet taller than the row next to it, while there 
may be a week's difference in the time of tas- 
seling, and ten days' difference in the time of maturity. 
At husking time each row is harvested separately, and all 
the corn is discarded but that from about 20 of the best 
yielding rows. This corn from each row is kept in a 
separate lot and carefully looked over. Any lot that is 
in any way undesirable is discarded. When the rows 
that are to be saved have finally been selected, five or 
ten of the best ears are chosen from each to be planted 
after the same system again the next year. Many of 
these ears coming from the high yielding rows fail to in- 
herit high yielding qualities, but by constantly selecting 
out high yielding rows from year to year the tendency 
becomes more fixed. 

Even one year's work may produce good results, as our 
experiments have shown. In 1903, 82 rows were planted 
with different ears. The yield varied from 70 to 108 
bushels per acre. From these, 17 rows were selected, 
all of which had yielded more than 90 bushels per acre. 
Six ears were taken from each of these and planted in 
1904. The season of 1904 was not as good a corn year 



farmers' friend 135 



as 1903, and the soil was not as good as that used in 
1903, but an average yield of 68.6 bushels was obtained, 
while the yield of corn of the same variety in the same 
field, the seed for which had been selected in the ordinary 
way, yielded only 62 bushels per acre, or a difference 
of 6.6 bushels as the result of one year's work. It is 
hoped that by following this method of selection for sev- 
eral years the average yield may be greatly increased. 

WHY OATS RUN OUT. 

Almost all farmers have noticed that oats run out so 
badly that it is necessary to change seed frequently. Can 
it be avoided! Ought not seed to grow better with 
proper treatment than poorer? An observant farmer in 
the American Cultivator gives some very sound thoughts 
on this subject.' He says in discussing the matter: 

"I have noticed that nearly all new varieties of oats do well for a 
year or two, and then fall back and yield no better crops than our 
common oats. This deterioration I have noticed for years, and now 
we hardly find a crop of oats up to the legal standard of thirty-two 
pounds per bushel. The average in this vicinity is not more than 
twenty-five pounds to the bushel. I have studied for years to learn 
the cause of this trouble. The land is apparently just as good, we 
have better implements for the preparation of the seed bed, special 
fertilizers adapted to the wants of the crop, yet no improvement. 

"My conclusion is that the difficulty lies wholly with the seed. 
Fifty years ago it was not uncommon to find whole fields of oats yield- 
ing forty or more pounds to the Ibushel. There were no new fangled 
oats in those days. Sientific writers tell us the soil was new and 
that all crops were better, which may be true to a certain extent, yet 
this is not the only reason. At that time all grains were threshed 
with a flail, and only the best and plumpest grains were obtained, 
while the shrunken and imperfect grain was left in the straw. The 
grain was then winnowed by shaking from a shovel in a strong wind 
driving through the barn floor, and the head of the heap carefully put 
away for seed. The tail end of the heap was fed out. Since the thresh- 
ing machines have come into general use, one can hardly find a farmer 
who threshes by hand. If a machine leaves even the semblance of an 
oat in the straw it will be looked upon as an imperfect machine 
and most likely be ordered out of the barn. There is no head of the 
heap coming from the machine, and good and poor are mixed together 
and sown year after year. Is it any wonder that oats deteriorate? 



138 farmers' friend 



"What would be ttLOught of a farmer who should plant all the corn 
that grew in the hill, nuibbins and all? \H.e would be called insane. 
Yet this is just what we do with oats and then wonder at their failure. 
Anyone can satisfy himself, if he will look over a field of oats just 
after it has headed out. He will find all grades of growth, from tall, 
well formed, stocky heads, down to plants which have not sufficient 
vitality to make a head. When harvested one will find all lengths of 
straw, from six inches to three feet, and all grades of oats from zero 
up to forty pounds per bushel. 

"My practice of late years is to allow the machine to blow hard 
enough to blow over the light oats from those saved for seed, and I 
find my oats improving from year to year. A better method still 
would be to thresh the bundles lightly with a fiail, and thus get the 
best of the grain for seed, and then, if one chooses, to run the 
bundles through the machine. Let brother farmers try this experi- 
ment and report the result in future years." 



RUSSIAN THISTLE. 



By L. H, PAMMEL. 

The widespread interest manifested in our state and 
elsewhere in the northwest indicates that the Russian 
Thistle (Salsola Jx-ali, variety tragus), is a miserable and 
execrable weed, doing much injury to agriculture. 

At the request of the Director of the Experiment Sta- 
tion I have devoted a little time to the botany of this 
weed. Some attention has therefore been given to the 
study of the weed, its germination, the anatomy of the 
root, stem, leaf and seed. A study of the anatomy will 
be of interest, because its structure may best adapt it 
to growing on high, dry soil. Professor L. H. Dewey 
says : 

The Russian Thistle grows best on high, dry soil, 
where it is not much crowded bv other plants. It is sel- 
dom seen in sloughs or low land, and makes no progress 
in the native prairie, except where the sod has been bro- 
ken by badger burrows or by the overfeeding and con- 









R 




1 


1 




1 



THE RUSSIAN THISTLE. 



farmers' friend 139 



sequent tramping of cattle on the ranges. In all places 
it is more abundant and more robust in dry seasons. 

NATIVITY OF THE WEED. 

Linnaeus, according to Dewey seems to have been fa- 
miliar with the plant, as it occurred in eastern Europe. 
The common Saltwort {Salsola kali L.), is a common 
plant of our Atlantic coast, and many botanists, till re- 
cently, have referred the Russian Thistle to this species. 
The writer several years ago, in response to queries, re- 
ferred it to this species, but it is quite distinct from that 
plant. The Russian Thistle is known as (Salsola kali 
L., variety tragus, DeCandolle), and is native to the plain 
of Southeastern Russia and Western Siberia. Senator 
Hansbrough* says, in regard to the thistle in Russia: 

"Prince Galitzen tells me 'that four years ago, when he 
left Russia, he passed through the southwestern portion 
of Siberia, and there found stretches of thistle for five 
or six hundred miles in the most fertile parts of that 
country. It had driven every farmer out of that section. 
He also tells me that the Russian government, which has 
been engaged in the great work of irrigation and put- 
ting in large irrigating ditches in southwestern Siberia 
for some years, has abandoned the project, chiefly on 
account of the thistle. He states that the pest has over- 
run the country, largely in the provinces of Orel and 
Kiev, which comprise the most fertile agricultural re- 
gion in Russia, and that the peasant farmers are simply 
fleeing in terror before it. ' ' 

In regard to the distribution of this weed in the United 
States, no one has looked this up more carefully than 
Mr. Dewey who says : 

"The plant was first introduced into the United States 
in 1873 or 1874, in flax seed brought from Russia, and 
sown near Scotland, Bonhomme county, South Dakota. 
The land there is somewhat billy, and corn is the chief 
crop raised, so that owing to the wooded ravines and the 



1-iO FARMEES' FRIEND 



standing cornstalks the Russian Tliistle was at first slow 
in spreading. In 1877 it first appeared in Yankton 
county, east of Bonhomme; and five years later it had 
spread to the counties to the north and west of Bon- 
homme. It continued gradually to cover new territory 
until 1888, when it had infested most of the counties be- 
tween the Missouri and James rivers south of the Huron, 
Pierre and Deadwood Division of the Chicago & North- 
western railway. The strong winds during the winter 
of 1887-88, followed by the dry summer of 1888, and 
probably a fresh importation of seed into the flax fields 
of Faulk or McPherson counties, caused the weed to 
spread within two years to nearly all the remaining 
counties between the Missouri and James rivers in South 
Dakota and to infest the southern tier of counties in 
Nortli Dakota. At about the same time it invaded nor- 
thern Iowa and northeastern Nebraska." 

With regard to remedies, it is easily killed. When 
cut off at the surface of the ground before seeding it 
dies. This is the best remedy. If a field is neglected 
until it is seeded, repeated plowings will clean it of this 
and most other weeds. When the plant is not more 
than six inches high careful plowing with a drag chain 
from the end of the doubletree to the plow beam drag- 
ging back so as to have every plant dragged under the 
furrow, with harrowing to fill every crevice between 
the furrows will kill every plant that cannot get its 
leaves to the surface. 

THE CANADA THISTLE. 

BY L. H. PAMMEL. 

The writer annually receives many queries in regard 
to noxious weeds. Some have been described in previous 
bulletins of the experiment station and are referred to 
in foot note^ so that those who have kept the bulletins 
may refer to them. It is our intention to issue a bulle- 
tin containing a full account of the more important weeds 



farmers' friend 141 



at some future time, as well as the germination of weed 
seeds. 

Many of the queries received pertain to the Canada 
Thistle {Cnicus arvensis). Frequently specimens ac- 
company the query so that we have been able to say 
whether the weed occurs. Some experiments were con- 
ducted last summer to determine whether the weed can 
be exterminated. The results of the experiment show 
that this weed can be exterminated. 

WHERE FOUND?— IN ALL THE WEST 
CENTRAL STATES. 

Description. Smooth perennial, spreading by creep- 
ing rootstocks, one to three feet high, corymbosely 
branched at the top; stems smooth; leaves lanceolate, 
sessile, and deeply pinnatifid, lobes and margins of the 
leaves with spiny teeth; heads small, three-fourths of an 
inch high, bracts appressed, the outer with a broad base, 
inner narrow, all with an acute tip, never spiny, some- 
what arachnoid ; flowers purple, dioecious in staminate 
flowers exserted with abortive pistils, in pistillate less 
so, scarcely exceeding the bracts, stamens with abortive 
anthers, tubes of the corolla six inches long, anther tips 
acute, filaments minutely pubescent, young achenium 
pubescent, all of the bristles of the pappus plumose. 

METHODS OF EXTERMINATION. 

Many methods have been suggested and tried. The 
following are usually recommended. To thoroughly cul- 
tivate the field or plow deep. Remove all the thistles 
and keep the thistles down during the summer. Prof. 
Beal recommends red clover in stamping it out. While 
this may help somewhat to hold the weed in check, it 
will not suffice to stamp it out. More vigorous methods 
must be pursued. Thorough cultivation and keeping the 
plants down is an excellent thing to do. In some cases 
failures are reported but these are due largely because 
the farmer tires out before the work is completed. 

Recently several reports^ have appeared on the chem- 



142 _ l^AEMERS' FRIEND 



icar destruction of weeds. These substances are known 
as herbicides. Experimenters report chemical treat- 
ment a success. 

A good opportunity was offered to try the experiment 
since the yard of Prof. Noble on the college premises 
and the adjoining lot of Mr. Gray contained a vigorous, 
lusty growth of Canada thistles. Various treatments 
such as cultivation, and the use of salt failed to destroy 
the thistles. I therefore arranged with Prof. Noble to 
let two students, Mr. T. S. Hunt and Mr. E. A. Elder, 
try the chemical method, using crude carbolic acid in the 
following proportions : 

Carbolic acid 1 part. 

Water 4 parts. 

The solution was agitated to have a good mixture. 
It was found to be very essential to keep the acid and 
water thoroughly agitated in order to get an even dis- 
tribution. At first an ordinary garden sprinkler was 
used. All of the plants were sprinkled. This was found 
to be expensive, nor did it kill anything more than the 
tops of the plant. Later at the suggestion of Prof. 
Noble a small mechanic's oil can was used. It was found 
where the stems were touched with the solution the root- 
stocks were killed from a few to ten inches below the 
ground but below this i3oint they sprouted again in some 
cases. Generally however they did not sprout again. 
Where there are many plants this method is very labori- 
ous and costly. 

We tried therefore the spud method. The 
patch of thistles was in a blue grass lawn. 
The thistles were cut from six to eight inches 
below the ground. The thistles continued to ap- 
pear, largely because the ground was thickly cov- 
ered with the plants and they were not always detected. 
Early in June the whole patch was plowed, and as soon 
as the young- thistles appeared the carbolic acid solution 
was applied with the mechanic's oil can. The , dry 
weather helped to remove the thistles. Mr. Elder says 
in regard to the thistles in the yard adjoining that of 



FARMERS FRIEND 



143 



Prof. Noble, "The thistles in Mr. Gray's yard were 
allowed to become twelve inches high, when they were 
cut with a scythe. The number of shoots which appeared 
within two weeks was marvelous. The solution was ap- 
plied with the same effect as above. Three or possibly 
four applications usually cleared a given patch. An 
examination of the ground in September showed only a 
few thistles remaining, and these had been hidden by the 
grass in such a manner as to escape detection." 

Prof. Noble who has kept close watch of the thistles 
informs me that he has found but few this season and 
these were overlooked in the grass adjoining the plot. 
On June 25 the writer went over the patch which is now 
sown with oats and was able to see but a single Canada 
thistle; so we may conclude that this experiment was a 
success and that anyone who desires to have the Canada 
thistle removed can do so in this way. 

As to expense we used about two gallons of crude car- 
bolic acid, and the labor amounted to thirty hours at 
fifteen cents an hour, and the plowing seventy-five cents. 

We may conclude from this experiment that Canada 
thistles can be destroyed by methodic removal of the 
plants, and crude carbolic acid. , 

POISONING GOPHERS. 

Frequent inquiries are received asking how best to 
employ strychnine for poisoning gophers. 

The amount of damage to farm crops by these little 
pests is very great. It is estimated that in 1901 the 
damage to the alfalfa growers of Kansas from the rav- 
ages of the pocket gopher was $500,000. Grass, small 
grains, corn, vegetables, etc., suffer largely from go- 
phers. Their damage is of two-fold character in that 
they not only destroy the growing grain but throw up 
little mounds of dirt in the fields to interfere with cut- 
ting the crops. The gophers also tramp down and de- 
stroy each season a large amount of grain, and it may 
be safely said that in North Dakota, the damage to 



144 farmers' friend 



farm crops in the aggregate is greater than the estimated 
damage to the alfalfa growers of Kansas. 

The early spring is the breeding season and gophers 
are very prolific, sometimes producing as many as ten 
or eleven young in a single litter; therefore, the de- 
struction of one female gopher, at this season means as 
much as many killed later in the season. 

Many complaints are made that strychnine does not 
seem to destroy many of the gophers, in some instances, 
where it has been employed. There may be two reasons 
for this. The strychnine is not soluable to any great 
extent, even in hot water, and gophers eat but little food 
at one time. To successfully destroy these pests the 
poison should be present in the food in considerable 
quantity and the strychnine should be soluable and in a 
form or mass acceptable to the animal to be poisoned. 

TO PREPARE STRYCHNINE POISON. 

Strychnine is readily soluable in hot acidulated water 
and we recommend the following method: 

Bring one quart of vinegar to boiling, add one ounce 
of strychnine, stir with a stick until fully dissolved and 
then add six quarts of hot water. Pour this on twenty 
pounds of wheat or corn and allow to stand for eighteen 
hours or until ithe solution is entirely absorbed, but the 
mass must be frequently stirred and vigorously so that 
it will become uniformly saturated with the poison. The 
grain should now be spread out to dry, where it cannot 
be reached by animals or children, for you have a highly 
poisonous grain. 

Now dissolve six pounds of sugar in six quarts of 
water and boil until one gallon remains and then allow 
to cool. When cold add one tablespoon of anis oil which 
can be secured at any drug store. You now have a 
thick syrup which should be poured over the nearly dry 
poisoned grain and the whole stirred so as to cover each 
grain with a layer of syrup. Allow the grain to thor- 



farmers' friend 145 



ouglily dry, stirring so as to prevent its sticking in a 
mass. The odor of anis oil is very attractive to 'the go- 
pher and each kernel should contain enough poison to 
destroy one gopher. This sugar coated grain can be 
used at any time, but great care should be taken to pre- 
vent any possible poisoning of birds or animals. A little 
of this grain buried near each gopher burrow will be 
pretty sure to attract and destroy its victim. 

FEEDING VALUE OF POTATOES. 

The Michigan Experiment Station conducted an ex- 
periment in March, 1896, to ascertain whether the addi- 
tion of mangels or potatoes to a ration affect the digest- 
ibility of the other factors of a ration. The experiment 
covered fifty-two days. Mr. C. D, Smith, the agricul- 
turist, states that "the addition of either beets or pota- 
toes seemed to lessen perceptibly the digestibility of the 
dry matter (crude protein and crude fat) of the grain 
and coarse feed". 

In another test of the effect of feeding potatoes upon 
the quality of butter it appeared to give the butter an 
undue hardness, elevated the melting point, caused the 
cream to froth arid to churn with difficulty, and hence 
was unsatisfactory. 

With pork selling at $3.80, potatoes fed to hogs were 
worth 7.7 cents per bushel. 

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station, trials were made 
in feeding cooked potatoes, mixed with uncooked corn 
meal, fed in opposition to uncooked corn meal only, to 
fattening pigs. In the first trial there were three pigs 
in each lot and two in the second, the trials extending 
over a period of forty-five days. Combining these trials 
it is found that 441 pounds of potatoes are required to 
save 100 pounds of corn meal. 

Prof. W. A. Henry, the experimenter, says "in general, 
we may say that a bushel of corn is worth 4^ bushels of 
potatoes for fattening purposes when cooked and fed 
with corn meal". 



146 farmers' friend 



POTATO SCAB. 

Cut one shows a potato grown from a scabby seed 
potato not treated to a solution of corrosive sublimate. 

Cut two shows a potato grown from a scabby seed po- 
tato that was treated with corrosive sublimate. 

Cut three shows the potatoes raised on one row where 
no care was taken in selecting the seed. 

Cut four shows the potatoes raised on one row of 
equal length and side by side with number three. It 
pays to select your seed potatoes at time of digging. 
You should take potatoes only from hills where the po- 
tatoes are large and yield well. 

HOW TO PREVENT POTATOE SCAB. 

The potato should be treated before cutting. Soak 
the seed tubers one and one-half hours in a solution of 
cori'osive sublimate made at the rate of one ounce of 
powdered corrosive sublimate to six gallons of water, 
or in a solution of formaldehyde made at the rate of one 
pound to thirty gallons of water. Then cut as usual. 

TREATMENT OF BLIGHT, POTATO ROT, ETC. 

These diseases spread from vine to vine in the field 
and in a wet season destroy from one-tenth to one-half 
of the crop on tjhe old lands of the Red River Valley. 
The vines should be sprayed just before the blossom 
stage, or when about one-half grovm, with Bordeaux 
mixture and every two weeks thereafter during the grow- 
ing season. Paris green may be added to the Bordeaux 
mixture at the rate of one-half pound to each fifty gal- 
lons. This will kill the bugs at the same time. The 
New York State Experiment Station sprayed a large 
crop seven times and after deducting all costs had a net 
gain of $48.75 per acre, over the untreated crop. 

The Bordeaux mixture is made by dissolving four 





No. I 



No. 2 



^p/^mm 



No. 3 




No. 4 



farmers' friend 147 



pounds of quick lime in a few gallons of water and six 
pounds of copper sulphate in another vessel of water. 
When all is well in solution, strain each and mix to- 
gether adding enough water to make fifty gallons in all. 
Keep this solution thoroughly agitated while it is being 
sprayed upon the vines. 

"NOVELTIES" IN POTATOES. 

Do not pay high prices for a few pounds of tubers of 
some new potato that may have many claims in its favor 
unless you are sure of its excellence, and even then it 
would be well to wait until it has been given a test for 
several years, as many varieties may be unreliable in 
some sections. Novelties in seeds, fruits and vegetables 
are brought out every year, but they sometimes happen 
to be old varieties with new names. They spring into 
existence as novelties one year and sink out of sight in 
two or three seasons. 

CLOVER AS A FERTILIZER. 

(Mirror and Farmer.) 

This subject has been widely discussed, and while it 
is universally admitted that great value attaches to 
clover as a fertilizer, there is considerable difference of 
opinion as to how the best results may be brought about. 
Some hold that the crop, being diennial, should have full 
possession of the ground until the second year when in 
full bloom, but the crop is so valuable for feed that most 
farmers will be loth to do it. The plowing under of the 
second crop is, however, considered almost as beneficial, 
owing to the increase in the length of the roots. 
There is great value from the roots of clover. Prof. 
Roberts, of Cornell University, had a portion of a clover 
crop analyzed, roots and all, and after drying it until 
the roots contained only ten per cent, of water, and the 
stalks but eleven and one-half per cent., the tops or 
stalks on an acre weighed 3,295 pounds, while the roots 
on an acre weighed 4,893 pounds. Other advantages also 



148 farmers' friend 



come from letting the roots grow long; they penetrate the 
sub-soil and carry into it elements which release and util- 
ize plant food which would otherwise lie dormant; they 
also smother the weeds. 

BUMBLE BEES AND CLOVER. 

An Indiana farmer, who told his boys to burn every 
bumble-bee's nest they found on the farm, and who was 
complaining at the failure of his clover seed crop, was 
surprised when Maurice Thompson, the naturalist, said, 
''That is why your clover seed fails you. Bumble-bees 
make your clover seed. ' ' It is a fact that a strong nest of 
bumble-bees in a big clover field is worth $20 to the 
owner; for these insects are the chief agents in f utiliz- 
ing thx! i)Iossoms, thereby insuring a heavy crop of seed. 
In Austi-alia there are no bumble-bees of our kind, and 
they could not raise clover seed there until they imported 
some. 

HOW TO FERTILIZE WITH CLOVER. 

It has been, since the days of Cicero, an agricultural 
axiom, that "feeding cattle is the most important part of 
agriculture", and feeding cattle has been the support of 
agriculture. To sell clover hay, or any hay, or even 
straw, has been considered very poor and wasteful farm- 
ing, and if we go to the best farming localities — eastern 
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New Jersey, parts of Mary- 
land, and central and western New York — we shall find 
the reverse of this practice is the very basis of the excel- 
lent condition of the farms and of the wealth of the far- 
mers. Rightly managed, clover hay is worth $10 a ton 
to feed to stock for direct profit, and Dr. Lawes avers 
that the manure left from it is worth $10 dollars more. 
If a farmer cannot make $10 out of a ton of clover hay 
fed to cows in a winter dairy, or to keep cattle along with 
a proper ration of other feed, he is not worthy the name 
of a skillful farmer. And if a farmer wastes his re- 



FARMERS' FRIEND 



149 



sources and cannot turn a crop of clover to a better pur- 
pose than to turn it under and let liis land lie idle for 
two years, lie is not a fit person to teach other farmers 
their business. The business of a farmer is to raise 
crops, to feed them to stock, and to turn the raw mater- 
ials he produces, so far as possible, into finished products. 
To raise crops and to turn them under for manure, in- 
stead of feeding them and making manure, is to go back 
instead of forward. — Cor. Netv York Tribune. 

THE MAN WHO MAKES MONEY. 

It is not from the extent of one's farm that money is 
made, but from the labor that is put upon it. All profit 
comes from labor. Even a gold mine is valueless without 
labor. But labor, unaided by intelligence, is of little 
value. True, ''the hand of the diligent maketh rich", 
but diligence involves intelligence, and this is obtained 
by industry; by reading and study; by observation and 
experiment, and by aptness to learn. One man thus 
equipped will make more off a farm of 100 acres than 
another can off one of 1000. — Rural World. 

EX-FARMEES. 

We have watched with a good deal of interest the 
career of well-to-do-farmers who have been elected to 
county offices. They in general make good officers and do 
well until after their second term. Then the question 
arises, Shall I go back to the farm, or continue to live in 
town? Now and then we find one goes back to the farm, 
the wiser and better man from having had the experience 
in public life that the office gave him. For the most part 
however, they remain in the town. They drift into land 
offices or insurances agencies, occasionally into merchan- 
dising, but is it seldom the}^ are as well off in ten years 
as if they had remained on the farm. 

Generally they develop, if they do not return to the 
farm, an aptitude for machine politics. They are always 
farmers, even if they have not touched a plow for ten 
years, and parade themselves as the genuine friends of 



150 farmers' friend 



the "honest sons of toil", and on this ground claim the 
right to lead and direct agricultural opinion. Although 
they have long ceased to look at public questions from the 
standpoint of the farm, they produce the annual crop of 
hay seed and boast their ability to serve the farmer. 
They form naturally the very best medium through which 
the party bosses can manipulate the farmer. 

There is an immense amount of rot and rubbish in this 
cant about "farmers friends" etc. The friend of the 
farmer is the man whose main financial interests are in 
the farm, who studies the social and political questions 
from the standpoint of the farm, who can suggest the 
means of advancing the agricultural interests and who 
does this without any ulterior object of gaining their 
votes. About the last man to trust is the fellow who 
has left the farm years ago, has lost its habits, tastes and 
instincts, and has no visible interest in it, and who is 
always putting himself forward as the friend of the 
farmer. This class of farmers will bear close watchingo 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

The progress that a nation is making can with reason- 
able accuracy be measured by the kind of live stock it 
raises. The general rule is, poor stock, poor people. All 
the prosperous nations of the globe, especially the grain- 
growing nations, get a large share of their wealth by rais- 
ing improved stock. The stock bred by these nations is 
now, however, very different from the stock raised by the 
same nations years ago. As soon as man began to pro- 
gress in the art of agriculture he became dissatisfied with 
inferior stock. He therefore bent his energies to raise 
the standard of excellence in domestic animals. 

By slow stages of animal improvement the angular, 
thin-flanked wild boar of early times has been trans- 
formed into the sleek Berkshire or the well-rounded 
Poland China. In the same manner the wild sheep of the 
Old World have been developed into wool and mutton 
breeds of the finest excellence. By constant care, 
attention, and selection, the thin, leggy wild ox has been 



FARMEIIS' FRIEND 153 



bred into bounteous milk-producing Jerseys and Hol- 
steins or into Shorthorn mountains of flesh. From the 
small, bony, coarse and shaggy horse of ancient times 
has descended the ponderous Norman draft horse and the 
fleet Arab courser. 

The matter of meat production is one of vital im- 
portance to man, for animal food must always supply a 
large part of man's ration. 

Live stock of various kinds consume the coarser foods, 
like the grasses, hays 'and grains, which man cannot use. 
As a result of this consumption they store in their bodies 
the exact substances required for the building up of the 
tissues of man's body. 

When the animal is used by man for food, one class of 
foods stored away in the animal body produces muscle; 
another produces fat, heat, and energ}^ The food fur- 
nished by the slaughter of animals seems necessary to 
the full development of man. It is true that the flesh 
of an animal will not support human life as long as would 
the grain that the animal ate while growing, but it is also 
true that animal food does not require so much of man's 
force to digest it. Hence by the use of meat a part of 
man's life struggle is forced upon the lower animal. 

When men feed grain to stock, they receive in return 
power and food in their most available forms. Men 
strengthen the animal that they themselves may be 
strengthened. One of the great questions, then, for the 
stock grower's consideration is how to make the least 
amount of food fed to animals produce the most power 
and flesh. 

HOW TO BREED AND CARE FOR HORSES. 

Wliile we have a great many kinds of horses in 
America, horses are not natives of this country. Just 
where wild horses were first tamed and used is not def- 
initely known. It is believed that th6y were first used 
for warfare and then gradually bried and adapted to other 
purposes. 

Where food was abundant and nutritious and climate 
mild and healthful, the early horses developed large 



154 farmers' friend 



frames and heavy limbs and muscles ; on tlie other hand, 
where food was scarce and climate cold and bleak, the 
animals became as dwarfed as the ponies of the Shetland 
Islands. 

One of the first recorded uses of the horse is found 
in Genesis, chapter xlix, verse 17, where Jacob speaks of 
"an adder that biteth the horse heels". Pharaoh took 
*'six hundred chosen chariots" and "with all the horses 
and chariots" pursued the Israelites. The Greeks at first 
drove the horse fastened to a rude chariot, and later 
found that they could manage the animal while on its 
back, with voice or switch and without either saddle or 
bridle. This ingenious people soon invented the snaffle 
bit, and both rode and drove with its aid. The curb bit 
was a Roman invention. Shoeing was not practiced by 
either Greek or Roman. Saddles and harness were some- 
times made of skin and sometimes of cloth. 

Among the tartars of middle and northen Asia, and 
also among some other nations, mare's milk and the flesh 
of the horse are used for food. Old and otherwise worth- 
less horses are regularly fattened for the meat markets of 
France and Germany. Various uses are made of the dif- 
ferent parts of a horse's body. The mane and tail are 
used in the manufacture of mattresses, and the same 
parts furnish a hair-cloth for upholstering; the skin is 
tanned into leather ; the hoofs are used for glue, and the 
bones for making fertilizer. 

Climate, food, and natural surroundings have all aided 
in producing changes in the horse's form, size and ap- 
pearance. The varying circumstances under which 
horses have been raised have originated the different 
breeds. In addition, the master's selection had much to 
do in developing the type of horses wanted : some desired 
work horses, and they kept the heavy, muscular, stout- 
limbed animals ; others desired riding and driving horses, 
so they saved for their use the light-limbed, angular 
horses that had endurance and stamina. The following 
table gives some of the diffent breeds and the places 
of their development: 




No. 2. Clydesdale Stallion Refiner, Glasgow, Scotland, 
Toronto, Canada, International Live Stock Show, Chicago, 
1905 Owned by State College of Iowa. 




No. 3. Etradegant, Champion Percheron Stallion, Des 
Moines, Iowa, Kansas City and Chicago, 1906. Owned by 
State Agricultural College of Iowa. 



farmers' friend 157 



I. Draft, or Heavy, Breeds. 

1. Percheron, from the province of Perche in France. 

2. French Draft, developed in France. 

3. Belgian Draft, developed by Belgian farmers. 

4. iClydesdale, the draft horse of Scotland. 

5. Suffolk Punch, from the eastern part of England. 

6. English Shire, also from the eastern part of England. 

II. Carriage or Coach Breeds, 

1. Cleveland Bay, developed in England. 

2. French Coach, the gen(tleman's horse of France. 

3. German Coach, from Germany. 

4. Oldenbury Coach, Oldenbury, Germany. 

5. Hackney, the English high-stepper. 

III. Light or Roadster Breeds. 

1. American Trotter, developed in America. 

2. 'The Thoroughbred, the English running horse. 

3. The American Saddle Horse, from Kentucky and Virginia. 

Therp is a marked difference in the form and type of 
these horses, and on this difference their usefulness de- 
pends. 

The draft breeds have short legs, and hence their 
bodies are comparatively close to the ground. The depth 
of the body should be about the same as the length of leg. 
All draft horses should have upright shoulders, so as to 
provide an easy support for the collar. The hock should 
be wide, so that the animal shall have great leverage of 
muscle for pulling. A horse having a narrow hock is not 
able to draw a heavy load, is easily exhausted, and liable 
to curb diseases. 

The legs of all kinds of horses should be straight: a 
line dropped from the point of the shoulder to the ground 
should divide the knees, canon, fetlock, and foot in two 
equal parts. AVhen the animal is formed in this way, the 
feet have room to be straight and square, with just the 
breadth of a hoof between them. 

The roadsters are lighter in bone and less heavily 



158 farmers' friend 



muscled; their legs are longer than those of the draft 
horses, and, as horsemen say, more ''daylight" can be 
seen under the body. The neck is long and thin, but fits 
nicely into tlie shoulders. The shoulders are sloping and 
long, and give the roadster ability to reach well out in his 
stride. The head is set gracefully on the neck, and should 
be carried with ease and erectness. 

Every man who is to deal with horses ought to become, 
by observation and study, an expert judge of forms, quali- 
ties, types, defects and excellences. 

The horse's foot makes an interesting study. The 
horny outside protects the foot from mud, ice, and stones.' 
Inside the hoof are the bones and gristle that serve as 
cushions to diminish the shock received while walking 
or running on hard roads or streets. When shoeing the 
horse, the frog should not be touched with the knife. It 
is very seldom that any cutting need be done. Many 
blacksmiths do not know this, and often greatly injure 
the foot. 

Since the horse has but a small stomach, the food given 
the animal should not be too bulky. In proportion to its 
size, its grain ration should be larger than that of other 
animals. Draft horses and mules, however, can be fed 
a more bulky ration than other horses, because they have 
larger stomachs and hence greater storage capacity. 

The horse should be groomed every day. Tliis keeps 
the pores of the skin open and the hair bright and glossy. 
When horses are working hard, the harness should be 
removed during the noon hour. During the cool seasons 
of the year, whenever a horse is wet with perspiration, it 
should on stopping work, or when standing for a while, 
be blanketed; for the animal is as liable as man to get 
cold in a draught, or from too rapid evaporation. 

(1). A person cannot practice veterinary medicine 
or surgery in Iowa without being registered by the state 
board of veterinary medical examiners, and receiving a 
certificate signed by the memebrs of the board. A 
diploma from a correspondence school in Canada would 



FARMEKS' FRIEND 159 



not answer. (2) A certificate from the state board is 
absolutely necessary. In order to obtain such a certifi- 
cate, a person must now be a graduate of a legally 
chartered and recognized veterinary college, and also 
pass the examination required by the board. 

BOTS.— THE CORRECT TREATMENT. 

Many wrong ideas prevail in reference to bots. All 
horses that are exposed to the bot-fly, must have bots 
more or less in their stomachs. Dr. Adams made the 
following experiment: Bots, when taken from the 
stomach alive, will live 

In strong rum, 25 hours. 

In strong decoction of tobacco, 11 hours. 

In strong oil of vitriol, 2 hours and 18 minutes. 

In essential oil of mint, 2 hours and 5 minutes. 

They will live without apparent injury in spirits of 
camphor 10 hours, fish oil 49 hours, tincture aloes 10 
hours, in brine 10 hours. 

Common-sense consequently teaches us that there is no 
medical remedy that will effect a cure for the bots, and 
there is no practicing veterinary surgeon who can tell the 
difference between bots and colic. Do not be misled. 
For colic or the bots give the following prescription : 

6 ounces of whiskey, 

7 ounces of new milk. 

Give at one time. If not relieved repeat the dose in 30 
minutes. 

If the above remedy cures the horse, the disease is colic 
and not bots. 

For bots give slippery elm tea, or potato juice. This 
will feed and quiet them, but they cannot be destroyed. 

FOUNDER. 

Cause. — Founder is produced by hard driving on a full 
Stomach, and drinking large quantities of cold water 
when heated, or by eating large quantities of green feed, 
or over-eating grain or large quantities of ground feed. 



160 farmers' friend 



Symptoms. — Stiffness and a disinclination to move. 
The limbs appear stift'ened and benumbed. A restless- 
ness shown by the continual looking around, tenderness 
of the bowels on pressure by the hand. 

Treatment. — Give one quart of linseed oil and bathe 
the legs with hot water. Bleeding is also recommended. 
A few hours after giving the linseed oil give the follow- 
ing prescription once a day, until cured : 

Spirits of turpentine, 1 ounce, 
Oil of sassafras, lounce. 
Alum, powdered, 1 ounce. 
Warm water, 1 pint. 
Mix and give as a drench. 

Large doses of aloes may be given, instead of the above 
prescription, with very beneficial results. 

HOW TO CURE THE COLIC IN HORSES. 

Symptoms. — Sleepy look; at times very fidgety; paw- 
ing with one foot; caution in lying down; breathing la- 
bored; walking gives relief; legs and ears natural tem- 
perature. 

A HOME REMEDY. 

Two common tablespoonfuls (not heaping) or salera- 
tus mixed with 1| pints of sweet milk. Give in one dose. 

ANOTHER REMEDY. 

Take 1 pint of whiskey and add 3 tablespoonfuls of 
common gunpowder. Give in one dose. If not better in 
an hour, repeat the dose, and give a pint of raw linseed 
oil. 

The following is an excellent remedy for any form of 
colic, and should always be kept on hand. It should be 
given as soon as possible. If the dose does not relieve, 
follow it in half an hour with another : 



FAKMERS' FRIEND 161 



Chloroform, 1 ounce, 
Laudanum, 1 ounce. 
Sulphuric ether, 1 ounce, 
Linseed oil, 8 ounces. 

LOCK-JAW. 

This is a very serious disease and cannot receive atten- 
tion too promptly. 

Cause. — Exposure to cold, standing in the rain, hard 
driving, then suddenly cooling, fatigue and hunger, inju- 
ries, cuts, bruises, driving of nails in sensative parts of 
the foot, in shoeing, etc. 

Symptoms. — Stiffness, straggling gait, stiffness of the 
jaws, swollen tongue, flowing of saliva from the mouth 
and a flickering motion of the eyes. 

Treatment. — If possible, give by the mouth one ounce 
of aloes and 2 drachms of calomel. Give injections of 
belladonna, half an ounce dissolved in a pail of water. 
Give upon the tongue every hour, twenty drops of the 
following mixture : 

1 ounce of dilute hydrocyanic acid, 
1 ounce of the tincture of aconite. 
Mix, and shake well together. 

WIND-GALLS. 

Wind-galls may be cured by tying on tightly a pad and 
bandage and leaVtng it on about two hours a day, morn- 
ing and evening. They will usually disappear in the 
course of a week or two. Sometimes, however, it may 
take four or five weeks. 

ANOTHER METHOD. 

Draw the liquid out through the nozzle of a hypoder- 
mic syringe and apply a wet bandage. Wind-galls may 
be also removed by applying a strong solution of oak- 
bark and alum. 



162 farmers' friend 



HIDEBOUND. 

Cause. — Hard work, neglect, and exposure. 

Symptoms. — The skin sticks very close to the ribs and 
appears immovable. 

Treatment. — To remove the cause is the ifirst step 
necessary to be taken. The following receipt will cure 
most cases: 

2 ounces of anise seeds, in powder, 
2 ounces of ginger, in powder, 

1 ounce of grains of paradise, 

2 ounces of mustard, 
2 ounces of turmeric. 

All to be powdered, and to be given in warm water, 
fasting, and to fast two hours after. Bleeding, tipping 
and physic are also good remedies. 

A CURE FOR THE CURB. 

Apply the following receipt morning and evening: 

Pulv. canitharides, 1 ounce, 
Citrine ointment, 4 ounces, 
Olive oil, 1 ounce. 

HOW TO CURE A FISTULA. 

This disease is the same as Poll Evil, but instead of 
being on top of the head it is located along the raised 
part of the back and over the shoulders, known as with- 
ers. It is due to some violence or bruise. 

Treatment. — Open it freely; when the bleeding has 
subsided, syringe it out with a ten per cent solution of 
corrosive sublimate. Get a druggist to prepare the solu- 
tion, and use it carefully, it being poisonous. After 
springing it out rub well in over a large surface around 
the sore one ounce of cerate of cantharides. Clip off the 
hair and clean the skin well before applying it. After 24 
hours grease it. After four days wash it and syringe it 
out again as before, and again after another week. If 



farmers' friend 163 



this does not cure it, repeat the whole course as soon as 
the scabs of the blister come off. 

FOR SORE MOUTH. 

Borax, 2 drachms, 
Alum, y-2 ounce, 
Vinegar, 1 pint, 
Soft water, 1 pint. 

Shake well and wash the mouth every evening and 
morning. Feed little hay and feed a pint of flax-seed 
once a day until well. 

FOR HARNESS AND SADDLE GALLS. 

Wash the sore parts thoroughly with castile soap and 
warm water every evening. Then apply a solution of 
common salt and sugar of lead (equal parts) after each 
washing. 

AN EASY WAY TO CURE GLANDERS. 

1 ounce of rock alum, 
1 ounce of white vitriol. 

Powder these well and put them into a pint of warm 
vinegar, and syringe about one ounce up the nostrils 
every day. 

A CURE FOR SWOLLEN LEGS. 

Bandage the legs in cloths wrung from hot water and 
give one pint of linseed oil and one pint of sassafras 
tea. 

Keep the leg bandaged for a few days, wringing out 
and applying cloths in hot water, whenever convenient. 

Make a strong tea of equal parts of mullein leaves, 
mayapple roots, and poke roots, and add two handfuls of 
salt. Apply as hot as the horse can bear. 



164 farmers' friend 



HOW TO MAKE OINTMENT FOR HORSES. 

Cracked Hoof Ointment. — Tar and tallow, equal parts 
nielted together. 

For Grease. — Mix four ounces lard with one ounce 
white lead. 

Heel Ointment. To the Cracked Hoof Ointment add 
3 ounces of verdigris to each pound. 

For Mange. — Soft soap, oil of turpentine lard, and 
flower of sulphur, 4 ounces each, mix well. 

HOW TO DESTROY MITES THAT INFEST THE 
HORSE. 

1. Mites are animal parasites that burrow in the skin, 
and under favorable conditions they can be transmitted 
to the mule or even to man, and may live indefinitely on 
the human skin. It can only be detected by a strong 
magnifying glass, moving among the scurf or scab of the 
infected skin. 

The mite burrows little galleries in and beneath the 
scurf of the skin, where it hides and lays its eggs and 
where its young are hatched. The mite is wonderfully 
prolific, la new generation of fifteen individuals being 
possible every fifteen days, so that in three months the 
offspring of a single pair may produce a generation of 
1,500,000 mites. 

2. Chicken lice often infest the skin of the horse. 

3. There is a parasite that attacks the heel and lower 
parts of the legs, especially the hind ones, and may be 
present for years without extending upon the body. This 
parasite lives on the surface, on the hairs, and among the 
■scabs. It gives rise to great itching, stamping, rubbing 
of one leg with the other, and the formation of wounds, 
ulcerous sores and scabs. The intense itching will always 
■suggest this parasite. 

General Treatment. — Take two ounces of tobacco and 
two ounces of water ; boil thoroughly and then apply to 
the skin after removing the scabs with a soft cloth or 
brush ; repeat this every fifteen days. Or take 1 drachm 
carbolic acid, 2^ ounces of water. Mix and apply until 
a cure is effected. , 



farmers' FRIEND 165 



HOW TO STOP THE BLEEDING OF A HORSE OR 

OTHER ANIMALS FROM A WOUND, SNAG, 

CUT, or BARBED WIRE INJURY. 

Make an application of dry manure, and it will stop 
the bleeding of a wound at once. 

A CURE FOR THE ITCH, MANGE, ETC. 

Cause. — It is a contagious disease caused by insects 
burrowing in the skin. 

Symptoms. — Dirty and rusty color of the hair, skin 
covered with scales and dandruff, constant rubbing, and 
pimples about the head and neck and under the mane. 
The hair falls out and the skin is dry and hard. 

Treatment. — Wash the horse thoroughly all over with 
castile soap. Then apply the following mixture: 

4 ounces of sulphur, 

4 ounces of white copperas, 

4 ounces of white hellebore root, in powder. 

Mix together in two quarts of buttermilk, and rub the 
affected parts freely. 

LOTION FOR MANGE. 

Boil two ounces tobacco in one quart water ; strain ; add 
sulphur and soft soap, each two ounces. 

HOW TO CURE CORNS IN HORSES. 

These are caused by that portion of the foot being 
bruised which is the sensitive part of the foot. Have 
the foot pared away so as to admit of the shoe being 
fitted to the foot so as to set easy. Do not draw too close 
with nails. Apply a caustic to the corn, and repeat as 
often as necessary, keeping the foot clean and soft by 
hoof ointments, and all will go well shortly. Caustic, 
muriatic acid, chloride of zinc — either applied, will have 
a tendency to effect a cure. 



166 farmers' friend 



NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE EYE 
AND NOSE. 

The cause of this is neglect in distemper, or over-heat 
or cold; this is a white discharge from the nose, and is 
not contagious — and can be cured. 

Cure. — Stop working him — give of alum | pound, resin 
^ pound, blue vitriol 4 pound ; grind and mix well with ^ 
pound of ginger ; give one large spoonful every night and 
morning — bleed one gallon. Keep him out of the wet, 
and do not work him. 

SPAVIN. 

ONLY SUCCESSFULL TREATMENT FOR SPAVIN. 
A SURE AND CERTAIN TEST FOR SPAVIN. 

Stand close to the side of the hind foot, face backwards, 
place the hand that is next the horse on and above the 
hock joint behind, as shown by our engraving; lean your 
weight on this hand, while you bend over and behind the 
horse's leg and examine the hock on the inside from above 
and behind, leaving your other hand free to examine and 
press the inside of the hock with thumb and finger, to 
detect any tender spot, bony enlargement, inflammation 
or heat. Many horses will flinch at having their hocks 
thus examined, but do not mistake this for tenderness. 
See if there is not some particular spot that is tender 
and hot, with a slight enlargement. It is always best to 
have some person hold up the fore leg of the horse on the 
side you are examining, to avoid danger. This exami- 
nation must not be hasty or rough. 

WHAT CAN BE DONE FOR SPAVIN. 

If the horse is not lame, and the lump does not increase, 
better not try any active treatment, or it may bring on 
increased action and prove more serious. If it is situated 
high up, and a bony deposit already taken place, the joint 
is incurably affected. You may burn, blister, punch, or 
even chisel the bunch off, but you can never restore the 



FARMEr^S' FRIEND 167 



delicate membranes and cartilages which have become 
bone, to their former state. The bunch may often be re- 
moved so that, to all appearance of the eye, the horse is 
sound unless tested for it. 

THE MOST SUCCESSFUL MODE OF CUEING IT. 

On the first appearance of the inflammation which 
produces the spavin, certain means can be adopted which 
will produce a cure. It generally takes about three weeks 
for a spavin to develop, and the spot to become tender to 
pressure, and in a short time after, the spavin will be 
apparent to an experienced eye. During these weeks is 
the time to treat it, for this is the curable stage, and the 
destruction of the joint avoided. The first step is good 
food and perfect rest in the stable, with no driving of any 
kind. Tlie next step is to reduce inflammation. This 
can be done by keeping the joint wrapped with a few 
thicknesses of cloth, or a sponge applied, and kept wet 
with water, or the following lotion : — 

Sugar of Lead, 2 ounces, 
Acetic Acid, 4 ounces. 
Water, 1 quart. — Mix. 

As soon as the inflammation lias gone, apply a portion 
of the following blister, made as follows, and repeat it 
two or three times as may be necessary, at intervals of 
two or three weeks. When the parts have recovered 
from the effects of blistering, a run at pasture for six or 
eight weeks will be very desirable treatment : — 

Biniodide of Mercury, 2 drachms, 
Powdered Cantharides, 1 drachm, 
Fresh Lard, 2 ounces. — Mix. 

The above should be thoroughly rubbed in. as its object 
is to stimulate absorption of the spavin. It will check 
all further growth, and render any increase in size- im- 
possible. Give internally, for three months, one drachm 
of iodide of potassium in a mash, daily. 

A WARNING ABOUT TREATING SPAVINS. i' 

It will be well for owners of horses to remember that 



168 farmers' friend 



the bunch that shows on the inside of the hock, is merely 
the outward symptom of the disease, while the real seat 
of the trouble is deep within, and the taking off the bunch 
in an old case, will not cure the spavin, but may make a 
bad matter worse. Firing or actual cautery is an ex- 
cellent method of treatment, but it takes good judgment 
and experience to do it properly. We give an article 
on how to fire properly, in another part of this work, 
which can be consulted. 

CURB. 

WHAT ITS CHARACTERISTICS ARE, 

It consists of an enlargement, or a gradual bulging out 
of the rear part of the hock, which is caused by an injury 
to the tendon of that part. It is easily detected. 

ITS TREATMENT, AND HOW TO SHOE. 

If the curb has recently appeared, have the heel of the 
shoe made a little thicker than those in ordinary use. 
Fomentations should be applied, with a view of reducing 
the inflammation, and afterwards hand-rubbing may be 
employed, in order to promote the action of the absorb- 
ents of the parts, and stimulate them to remove swelling. 
It is never advisable to resort to any severe treatment 
in the first instance; but if the lameness recurs, as is 
occasionally the case when the animal is put to work, it 
will be advisable to apply a blister to the part, which may 
be prepared as follows : — 

Biniodide of Mercury, 1 dirachm, 
Fresh Lard, 4 tablespoonfuls. — ^Mix. 

Apply every night until a watery discharge exudes 
through the pores of the skin; foment twice a day with 
warm water; continue bathing for two weeks. When a 
young horse throws out a curb, absolute and long-con- 
tinued rest are imperatively demanded ; in an old horse 
such is not the case, unless to a limited extent. Do not 
work the horse for four or five months, at least. The 



farmers' friend 169 



high-heeled shoe should be kept on for some time after 
the animal recovers from the lameness, and when any 
change is made it must be done very gradually ; otherwise 
the animal will be liable to renew the injury. 

RINGBONE. 

WHAT IT IS AND ITS DIFFERENT EFFECTS. 

Ringbone, splint and bone spavin all resemble each 
other in character, being a bony deposit or enlargement, 
differing only in location. The disease may affect the 
large pastern bone, the small pastern bone, the lower 
pastern joint, the joint between the small pastern and 
bone of the foot, or any two or all of them. It may 
entirely lock the joint, making it immovable ; it may ex- 
tend almost entirely around the part, or merely be a 
small enlargement in front. Sometimes the rear portions 
of the joint only are affected, the front being free. When 
the sides only are affected, it is not so serious. Ring- 
bone, which affects the small pastern and coffin bone, is 
the most difficult to treat. Its size is no criterion as to 
the amount of lameness. The enlargement is not the 
disease, but an effort of nature to strengthen a part 
naturally weak, or that has been injured by working the 
animal before the bones are matured. It will thus be 
seen that it is of serious or minor importance, according 
to location, size, etc. We give an illustration of a case 
which involves all the bones. The joint at figure 1 is still 
capable of some motion, but the coffin joint at figure 2 
is immovably locked. 

MANY CAUSES OF RINGBONE. 

It is a peculiarity of ligaments, membranes, etc., on o^~ 
near any joint, when injured and inflamed, that they are 
liable to produce an ossification or formation of spongj^ 
bone, which attaches itself immovably to the bone or 
joint proper. A severe strain inflames the joint, inflam- 
mation ensues, and lymph is secreted. This is gradually 
changed into porous bone, and a ringbone is the conse- 
quence. There is no doubt but what it is inherited to a 



170 farmers' friend 



certain extent. That is, the colts of a ringboned sire are 
very sure to become ringboned at an early age. We know 
of one breeder of fancy trotting stock who made a com- 
plete failure from the fact that his colts, sired by a speedy 
yet ringboned stallion, all became more or less ringboned 
at an early age and were valueless. 

THE PROPER AND BEST ■.•.•REi^TMENT OF IT. 

The first thing to do in the commencement of a ring- 
bone, is to allay the inflammation and prevent any further 
secretion of lymph in the part. Apply cloths to the sur- 
face, which must be kept constantly wet with the follow- 
ing lotion : — 

Sugar of Lead, 2 fluid ounces, 
Acetic Acid, 4 fluid ounces, 
Water, 1 quart. — Mix. 

After the inflammation and pain has subsided, apply 
on and around the margins of the ringbone, with smart 
friction, some of the following blister: — 

Biniodide of Mercury, 2 drachms, 
Ijard, 4 tablespoonfuls. — [Mix. 

As soon as blister subsides, apply again. Continue the 
treatment for at least two weeks. 

If the opening is not large enough to allow the particles 
of bone to escape, it must be enlarged by the knife, and in 
some instances the forceps must be used to remove the 
dead bone. The lotion should be continued until healed. 

LAMPAS. 

A BARBAROUS PRACTICE. 

This is a favorite disease with some stablemen, who are 
never so happy as when showing their skill in operating 
with a hot iron on the tender bars of the horse's mouth. 
If a young horse is "off his feed", a hot iron is their 
panacea. 

WHAT THE DISEASE IS. 

If affects young horses before they have their full com- 



FARMEES' FRIEND 171 



plement of teeth. Young horses changed from pasture 
to dry, hard food in the stable, will be troubled with it. 
The bars of the roof of the mouth slightly inflame and the 
horse fails to eat his food. 

ITS SIMPLE TREATMENT. 

Now, knowing its cause, how easy to cure. Merely give 
soft food, consisting of bran mashes to keep the bowels 
open, soaked or scalded oats, boiled roots, etc., for a few 
days, and the trouble will disappear. We positively 
assert that no other remedies need be used. In case of 
loss of appetite take : — 

Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, 2 ounces, 

Sulphate of Soda, 8 ounces. 

Powdered Gentian, 4 ounces. 

Powdered Linseed, 2 ounces, 

Spring Water, as much as sufficient to make an electuary. 

Of this give two tablespoonfuls thrice a day, smearing 
upon the root of the tongue with a ladle. 

don't burn THE HORSE 's MOUTH. 

It ruins the delicate sensitiveness to the touch of the 
reins so necessary in a pleasant, well-broke roadster. It 
often destroys the palate and makes the horse a confirmed 
"wheezer". Of all practices descended from the dark 
ages, this is the worst. If humanity will not check you, 
remember you are taking money from your pocket in 
lessening the value of the horse. 

BAD TEETH. 

HOW THEY AFFECT A HORSE. 

Sometimes a molar tooth projects up into a 
vacancy in the upper jaw, caused by the 
loss of a tooth, and having nothing to keep it worn 
down, finally pierces the gum of the jaw. It makes it 
difficult for the horse to eat, and he will sometimes throw 
out a mouthful after it has been partially masticated. 
It may so affect the face and jaw as to cause nasal gleet. 
In some cases the molars are worn off by uneven action, 



172 FARMEES^ FRIEND 



to a knife-like edge, and wound the sides of the mouth 
as well as the hand when introducing a ball. These 
troubles can be relieved by an operation performed with 
a tooth rasp. For any wounds, the chloride of zinc lotion 
for ' 'injuries to the mouth", will be all that is necessary. 
Bad teeth are often an unsuspected cause of in- 
digestion and other troubles which puzzle the owner. 

WOLF TEETH. 

Many people imagine that "wolf teeth", as they are 
called, by some mysterious means, reach up to the eye 
and affect it in some manner, and many other ridiculous 
fancies. They are merely superfluous teeth. The idea 
that they are injurious has become so firmly engrafted 
on the public mind, that it is almost impossible to eradi- 
cate it. In the great majority of cases, horses affected 
suffer from recurrent ophthalmia, the teeth having noth- 
ing to do with the causation of same. 

COMMON COLD. 

DESCRIPTION OF THIS AILMENT. 

It is caused by exposure and neglect, after which the 
horse is dull, the coat rough, the body of unequal tempera- 
ture, in parts hot, and in others icy cold. Often tears 
trickle from the eyes, which may be slightly inflamed. At 
length a copious discharge flows from the nostrils. 

WHAT TO DO IN THIS CASE. 

Blanket the horse warmly, and if possible, steam the nose. 
The ordinary feed nose-bag is too short, but a substitute 
can be made from the ordinary two bushel bag, by attach- 
ing straps to its mouth to go over the head. Put a peck 
of bran and a handful of hops in the bottom of the bag 
and pour on the following mixture : Spirits of turpentine, 
two tablespoonfuls, solution of carbolic acid, two table- 
spoonfuls. 



farmers' friend 173 



SURE AND SAFE CURE FOR LICE UPON COLTS, 
HORSES, CATTLE AND HOGS. 

Powdered Aloes sprinkled by means of spice box or 
pepper box. It should be freely applied as it is to be 
used in a dry state. Its application is as safe in cold as 
in warm weather. Other remedies that are just as 
effective are given in another place in this book but are 
intended to be applied only in warm weather. 

ANOTHER remedy. 

It is evidence of bad care for any man to allow calves 
or colts to become lousy. (I wish to save my own reputa- 
tion by saying that such a thing has scarcely ever 
happened to my stock, albeit I confess that I am rather 
a slack-twisted farmer.) But here is the remedy: Put 
a blanket over the animal and then blow thick clouds of 
tobacco smoke under it. This may best be done from a 
common bee-smoker, or one can be easily and simply 
made. This will kill every louse and every nit and the 
fumigation will not injure the animal. "Follow up the 
treatment," as the doctors say, with good care, cleanli- 
ness, etc. I saw some fine Berkshires at the late State 
Fair, which were very lousy, though the owners did not 
probably know it. An approved remedy is mercurial 
ointment — diluted with lard — and then better care of the 
swine. 

A SURE CURE FOR STOPPAGE OF THE BOWELS. 

Take two quarts of soft and fresh horse manure, add 
one quart of boiling water, strain through a common cloth 
strainer; give one pint as a drench. This will cure all 
ordinary stoppages of the bowels. In case the bowels 
are paralized there is no cure and any servere medicine 
would only hasten the death of the animal. 

TREATMENT FOR LAZY HORSES. 

Some horses are naturally lazy, but we believe it a 
man's own fault if he is annoyed with the slothfulness of 
his team while at work. The yelling and whipping that 



174 farmers' friend 



it takes to urge some teams to move even at a moderate 
gait is quite trying on the constitution. A steady lash- 
ing of the whip is sometimes resorted to for the treat- 
ment of such horses, which to say the least is a cruel 
treatment, and seldom has the desired effect. The horse 
that has acquired a lazy habit, and is used to being drub- 
bed all day, becomes so inured to the treatment that il 
has but little or no effect upon him. Perhaps the most 
successful way to break up this slothful habit, for it is a 
habit more than anything else, is to undertake it with a 
view to breaking it up thoroughly, the same as you would 
rid a horse of any other acquired vice. A few lessons in 
a wagon or breaking cart would be all that would be 
needed, provided they were of the right kind. The treat- 
ment would neccessarily be severe, for in all probability 
the habit was formed on account of the kind and gentle 
treatment of some former master. A severe application 
of the whip may be necessary at first, and perhaps for 
'Some time, but if each touch of the whip is accompanied 
by some word that is used afterward when prompting a 
horse to more rapid action, the use of the whip can soon 
be dispensed with. A half dozen lessons of the proper 
kind should suffice for the laziest horse, if they are prop- 
erly administered. By using certain words when a quick 
move is required, and using them only at the time such 
action is wanted, first accompanying their use with a cut 
or a crack of the whip, a horse will soon act as promptly 
at the sound of these words as he will if struck with the 
whip. Prompt, positive action on the part of the driver 
has much to do with the action of a team, and lazy men 
are often responsible for lazy horses. 

A HALF DOZEN WAYS TO TREAT BALKY 
HORSES. 

The following different ways of treating balky horses 
are recommended : First, pat the horse on the neck, ex- 
amine him carefully, first one side and then the other ; if 
you can get him a handful of grass give it to him and speak 
encouragingly to him ,then jump into the wagon and give 
the word go, and he will generally obey. Second, taking 



FARMERS FRIEND 



175 



the horse out of the shafts and turning him around in a 
circle until he is giddy, will generally start him. Third, 
another way to cure a balky horse is, place your hand 
over his nose and shut off his wind until he wants to go. 
Fourth, then again take a couple of turns of stout twine 
around the forelegs just below the knee, tight enough for 
the horse to feel it ; tie in a bow knot ; at the first click he 
will probably go dancing off. After going a short dis- 
tance you can get out and remove the string to prevent 
injury to the tendons. Fifth, again try the following: 
Take the tail of the horse between the hind legs and tie 
by a cord to the saddle girth. Sixth, the last remedy I 
know is as follows: Tie a string around the horse's ear 
close to the head; this will divert his attention and start 
him. — North British Agriculturist. 

The worst way is to get angry and swpar at him. 

THE HORSE EPIZOOTIC. 
(ByWm. Home, V. S.) 

This disease has manifested itself in most of the towns 
and cities of the Northwest. The present state of the 
weather is very favorable indeed, and will largely help 
to modify the attack. Should the weather change to wet 
and cold the conditions will be vastly different, and we 
may then expect a persistent attack of influenza. Should 
the weather so change, every precaution must be taken to 
preserve all the vitality by every possible device. Warm 
clothing, little or no work, good warm stables, with a good 
supply of pure air, are all indispensable. Under no cir- 
cumstances should those depleting measures be resorted 
to, which were so disastrous in 1872. My firm conviction 
is that hundreds of horses were murdered outright by 
debilitating and exhausting nostrums and practices. I 
•saw hundreds of horses in Chicago which were nearly 
blistered to death. Many of them did die. In one stable 
alone, I used to see daily over 60 animals which had been 
thus tortured and destroyed, and that too by one who 
assumed to be a veterinarian. 

In many cases medication is absolutely necessary. In 
the majority of cases medicines are not, but every remedy 



176 FAEMERS' FRIEND 



wMch will hold up and brace up the vital functions should 
be resorted to. One of the simplest and best is a strong 
decoction of caraway seeds. To one pint of this add half 
an ounce of tincture of ginger and four ounces of good 
whisky (pure brandy is better). Give twice a day, if 
much dejection and weakness be present. This will be 
very good at almost any time. Or simple stimulants may 
be given without fear of doing wrong, but with every 
reasonable hope of doing much good. Everything which 
has a tendency to exhaust the system will surely do harm. 
Everything which has a tendency to stimulate and build 
up the system will most assuredly do good. 

COLIC IN HORSES. 

One cause of colic in horses is giving cold water while 
they are sweating ; another allowing the horse to drink a 
large quantity of water after a heavy feed and then driv- 
ing at a fast speed, or again permitting it to draw a heavy 
load under similar circumstances. Another cause of colic 
is feeding the horse grain when very hungry. This ani- 
mal generally eats very fast when hungry, and a large 
portion of grain thus passes into the stomach without 
being masticated, and finds its way into the intestines, 
where it swells and ferments. When a horse has traveled 
a long journey, it is best to give it a little hay before it is 
fed grain. Youatt says: ^'Some of the oats are imper- 
fectly chewed by all horses, and scarcely at all by hungry 
and greedy ones." Careful attention to the feeding and 
working of horses would save them from many diseases 
with which they are now liable to be attacked. It is poor 
economy to feed grain to horses which they do not masti- 
cate, if no other evils attended it, for it is only the thor- 
oughly masticated food which renews the energies wasted 
by labor. In England, horsemen are rolling oats in order 
to insure their mastication. New oats should not be fed 
to hard-worked horses, nor old musty ones; the latter 
should be kiln-dried before being fed. 

"When a horse has the colic give him perhaps two table- 
spoonfuls of spirits of turpentine. Put the turpentine in 
a saucer and add flour enough so that it can be made into 



FARMERS ' FRIEND 177 



a little ball, the size of a small hen's egg. Hold up his 
head and put the ball as far back in his mouth as possible, 
when he will chew and swallow it. I have seen horses 
speedily relieved from a very severe attack of colic by 
this remedy. 

BETTER BROOD MARES. 

A good many farmers that pretend to raise horses are 
fooling their time away by the use of poor mares. Some 
of these are poor on account of smallness. They listen to 
the seductive story that a cross between a Percheron or 
Clyde, and a Texan pony or broncho will produce a "com- 
mon-purpose horse", and conclude they may as well have 
a cheap mare as a good one. 

Whilst there is little danger in foaling with these small 
mares, and while much that is claimed from this cross is 
true, it is all foolishness nevertheless. The farmer should 
not fool away his time with ponies, or mustangs, or bron- 
chos. If you have a lot of this truck make a sale and get 
rid of it, and get a good, large' mare, or, if possible, a 
grade Percheron or Clyde. One colt from this cross and 
a draft horse is worth two of the other, and will sell for 
twice the money and a great deal more readily. Don't 
raise two colts when you can get the same money out of 
one. 

Next, many mares are poor because unsound. Avoid 
the brood mare with suspicious eyes, or bad legs, or bad 
morals. By bad morals we mean horse vices, such as 
kicking or biting or sulking or being balky. If you don't 
wish your boys to learn to swear, don't raise any balky 
horses. The habit may not be perpetuated, but the ner- 
vous, fretful disposition out of which it grows will be. 

In the course of your life you will meet with enough 
balky men to try your patience without raising balkv 
horses. You will find enough vice among men without 
turning your farm into a vice-breeding establishment. 

Some mares are unfit to be used as dams, because they 
are not level-headed. They have not good sense and their 
colts will be in a measure like them. We are a stout be- 
liever in the doctrine of "original sin" in horses and 



178 farmers' friend 



cattle, and the less of it you start with the less you will 
get in the young things. But the original sin is not all 
on the female side, either in stock or men, and therefore 
it is essential to avoid vicious sires as well as dams. No 
sire that is vicious should be used under any circum- 
stances, nor one that has bad legs or bad eyes. 

GROWING MARKETABLE HORSES. 

It may be said of horses as of wheat that any and all 
grades are marketable, but the farmer who has, from 
year to year, grown wheat knows very well that when he 
succeeds in getting in a crop that grades No. 1, he barely 
gets day wages for growing and marketing the crop, after 
counting all contingent expenses. This being so, if his 
crop turns out to be of low grade there is no escaping loss 
upon it, because in no particular is it grown for less 
money per bushel than it costs to grow the best. The 
same rule holds good in the dairy, as shown by the fact 
that the butter or cheese from a given herd of cows will 
be first class if made by one party, while in the hands of 
another the lowest grade only is produced. 

Horses, like wheat and butter, take rank in market ac- 
cording to their quality, and the good, that sell for high 
figures, feed in the same pastures and eat the same quality 
of oats and hay as the veriest plug. All horses that can 
do duty must be said to be marketable, but in the sense 
that rejected wheat is marketable, only at the lowest 
figures, though all the processes through which the low- 
grade stock is carried is as expensive in the case of the 
poor in quality as in the case of the best, save and except 
the influence of the seed used, and this of course cuts an 
important figure. But says one, to produce a good qual- 
ity of grain of any kind you must have a good quality of 
seed as a foundation, and, applying this to horses, the 
start is more expensive if a man would have stock 
marketable at good figures than though he grew animals 
of lower grade. This, in a measure, is true, yet men who 
own fairly good brood mares, for the purpose of saving 
the paltry sum of ten or fifteen dollars in the service of 
a sire, will continually rear horses for which they get 



farmers' friend 179 



only low prices. The difference that grows out of the 
service of a good sire, as compared to one of low grade, 
not infrequently makes a difference of one-third in the 
selling value of a mature horse, and it is fair to place it 
higher than this in many cases. 

BREAKING COLTS. 

"Educating" is a better word than "breaking" when 
applied to colts reared by intelligent and humane horse- 
men. Though many a colt is really "broken" in training, 
there is seldom, if ever, any necessity for such a bourse. 
Take a "sucker" when he is too young to have any very 
pronounced opinions of his own, and there will be found 
but little trouble in making him understand that his 
master is really his best friend. When this has been ac- 
complished no further trouble need be anticipated, so far 
as an intelligent colt is concerned. Unfortunately, oc- 
casionally it happens that a horse is met with that has 
been a fool, and of such an animal it is difficult if not im- 
possible to make a horse that can ever be handled with 
any degree of safety. It often happens that a really in- 
telligent horse becomes possessed of a vice that is truble- 
some and dangerous, but such a case never presents the 
difficulties which characterize that of a horse that has 
been born a fool. As long as a horse has intelligence he 
can be educated, no matter how strongly unfounded prej- 
udice mav mislead him. More than 99 per cent of the 
foals that are dropped have quite enough intelligence to 
enable them to get through the world pleasantly and sat- 
isfactorily, but the reason that so many horses are ad- 
dicted to troublesome and dangerous vices is to be found 
in faulty education. 

Too often the system of handling colts is something 
as follows: 

The young thing is allowed to run with his dam and to 
make no human acquaintances. All he knows about boys 
and men is that whenever they get near him they hit him 
with a whip or make some (to him) horrid noise that 
thoroughly terrifies him. He very quickly comes to look 
upon boys and men as the most dangerous and trouble- 



180 farmers' friend 



some enemies of the equine race in general and of him- 
self in particular. This state of affairs continues till he 
is two or three years old. Then some day he finds him- 
self being chased about a paddock and worried till he is 
half dead with fright and fatigue, and finally from sheer 
exhaustion he is compelled to allow himself to be handled. 
He does not know what is wanted of him, and all that he 
learns about it comes in the way of bitter experience. 
After trying every other course to escape punishment 
and fright, with disastrous results, he gives himself over 
in sheer desperation to a sort of sullen despair, and al- 
lows himself to be pushed about by his tormentors or 
hauled about by another horse that is harnessed with 
him, just because he has given up all hope of escaping 
the persecutions of his enemies. His spirit is broken and 
he is pronounced broken to harness. He is now obedient 
so far as he knows how to be, but he is so because he dare 
not be anything else, and not from any desire on his part 
to do what is right. Such a horse may do what is re- 
quired of him, but he is liable to run away if suddenly 
fringhtened, to kick if anything touches his heels, and in 
short, to do almost anything that is objectionable in the 
very emergency when his good behavior would be most 
highly prized by his master. That is what may properly 
be styled "breaking" a colt. 

If a m.an wants an "educated" horse he should begin 
by winning his confidence during the foal's baby-hood, 
the sooner the better. It does not much matter what the 
youngster is taught during his first summer, so long as 
he is thoroughly familiarized with the halter and accus- 
tomed to being handled freely (though alwa-ys kindly and 
with gentleness). He soon learns to regard those who 
handle and feed him with the warmest friendship, and 
his highest ambition will be to merit their approval as 
evidenced by a kind word, a caress, or some little dainty 
of which he happens to be particularly fond. As he 
grows a little older he should be accustomed to the bit, to 
the harness and to other appliances to be used when he 
shall have arrived at a proper age to gp into business. In 
this way the youngster really grows into his work. He 
is taught to carry his head properly, to draw, to turn, to 



farmers' friend 181 



back, to be mounted, harnessed and tinharnessed, all with- 
out any painful or unpleasant process. He grows up to 
be not the cowed slave, but the trusted, well-tried friend 
of his master. All that he does he does cheerfully and 
pleasantly; in short, he is an ''educated" and not a 
"broken" one. 

HORSE HINTS. 

Being gentle with a horse will help him to be gentle. 

Keep the colt fat and he will make an easy-going horse. 

Sores on horses' shoulders are largely the result of ill- 
fitting collars. 

An excess of food weakens a working animal and dis- 
ables it from work. 

Blood, food, care and training are the essentials neces- 
sary for producing a first-class horse. 

To a very considerable extent the most costly farming 
is that done with poor teams. 

There are few diseases to which horses are subject but 
are easier prevented than cured, 
fort, but to its healthfulness as well. 

Feeding a little wheat bran with the other grain will 
help to make the horse 's hair sleek and glossy. 

Good grooming does not only add to the animal's oom- 

The best farm horse is the one with a kind and tract- 
able disposition, well broken and serviceable 

The farmers will always be poor who continue to raise 
$50 horses at an expense of $100. 

The feed and care necessary to raise a poor horse costs 
as much in every way as it does for one of the best. 

A horse needs exercise every day to keep his system 
properly regulated and makei his hair to be bright and 
isleek. 

Wlien the horse is brought in from work he should be 
given a good drink ; if too warm to drink he is too warm 
to eat. 

TAKE CARE OF THE COLTS. 

A good many fine colts will be stunted this winter. They 
might make 1500 pound horses worth $175; they will be 



182 farmers' FilIEND 



1200 pound horses worth $100. The winter's keep or 
rather want of keep will do the work. The builder is wise 
who commences his house at the foundation. When the 
excavation is made full size and the stone laid well it is 
ready for the building. The first year is the foundation 
of the colt. It is a foundation that expands or contracts 
with food and shelter, and when once made cannot be 
changed. You can put additional foundation under your 
house, you cannot under your colt. The old notion that 
colts must learn to endure hardship and stand the storms 
and learn to love corn stalks and rye straw and thus 
become hardy horses is utter foolishness. That is the 
proper way to make plugs that are hardly salable at 
from fifty to seventy-five dollars. 

You can raise them in that style ,reader, from the best 
Norman blood. Keep them away from the oats bin or 
corn crib or stack of good hay, drive them out to the 
stalk field and let them sleep out during storms or in the 
snow drifts, and the work is done. You have knocked 
seventy-five dollars off the value of your future horse. 
If you don't believe it take two colts as near alike as pos- 
sible, treat one of them in this way and give the other one 
gallon of oats a day or about twenty to twenty-five bush- 
els during the winter, with plenty of good hay, good 
shelter at night and plenty of exercise, and the same 
treatment to both after the first winter, and when they 
are three years old you will learn a lesson in the value 
of oats fed to a colt with shelter and what hay it will eat. 

We put in our plea for good, decent treatment in be- 
half of the most intelligent animal on the farm. We 
might add your own behalf. But we ask mercy and kind- 
ness to the colt, who in turn will put money in your purse. 

STYLE IN DRAFT HORSES. 

The better class of farmers have for years been breed- 
ing heavy horses. The move in this direction has been 
a wise one. Nothing on the farm pays better. Few things 
pay as well. But in this, as in all other matters, they 
have made mistakes. They have gone too much on mere 
size and awkwardness. A great big, raw-boned hulk, 



farmers' friend 183 



with churn legs and a walking gait that would almost dis- 
locate the joint of the luckless mortal that was forced 
to ride a mile, was regarded, and is yet regarded by some, 
as a model draft horse. Size is indispensable, but so 
is action and spirit to the really valuable horse. We 
have seen draft horses, so-called, that did not have sense 
enough to keep out of a wire fence. Good sense in a 
draft horse is almost as essential as in the roadster. 
Nothing is more provoking about a farm than a horse 
that is clumsy, awlrward, and a born fool. The good 
horse of any type is level-headed, broad-minded, sen- 
sible. No other should be used for breeding purposes. 
Equally as essential is a brisk movement. There is no 
more need of a large horse being ungainly, awkward 
and slow than of a large man. Who has not noticed 
that some of the most graceful dancers are large men 
and women? Their size, instead of detracting adds grace 
as well as dignity to their movements. Why should it 
be different with a horse? 

Another essential in a draft horse is spirit, courage, 
nerve force. We have known a span of these big,. clumsy 
draft horses stall over a load that was pulled out by a 
span of plucky mules not above the average weight. 
What they lacked was spirit and courage. 

These are matters of inheritance. Luck has nothing 
to do with it. When the selection of sire and dam is made, 
the spirit of the colt is fixed. That spirit may be perverted 
or spoiled by misuse, but no wise treatment can put 
spirt or courage in a horse whose sire or dam have 
have been lacking in these. You can't put sense into a 
fool nor courage into a coward in either man or horse; 
courage, spirit, activity, these form style in a draft horse. 



How to Breed and Care for Cattle. 



CONTENTS OF CHAPTER. 

Breeds of Cattle. — The Short Horns, their origin 
and gradual improvement — The Ayrshires and their 
qualities as a dairy breed — Holstein and Dutch cat- 
tle and their characteristics — Unrivaled qualities of 
the Alderneys, Guernseys, and Jerseys as butter 
makers — The Devons and Herefords — Native cattle. 



DIFFERENT BREEDS. 

SHORT HORN CATTLE. 

This breed of cattle has attained a distinction and won 
a substantial appreciation which no other race has so 
fully and widely enjoyed among the enlightened graziers 
of the world. From Great Britain its dissemination has 
extended to the continent, to Australia, to South Africa, 
South America, Mexico, and the West Indies, while it has 
secured almost a monopoly of the importations of this 
country and Canada. For the grass pastures of the Ohio 
valley, and the abundant, natural, and cultivated grasses 
of the broader prairies of the Mississippi region, it is ad- 
mirably fitted, and held in high esteem as the most eco- 
nomical machine for the speediest conversion of corn 
and grass into meat and money. 

The original short horns occupied the east of England, 
Yorkshire, and the valley of the Tees at the date of the 
earliest records of British stock-growing. They were 
various in size, color, and other peculiarities; the dark- 
skinned herds of the fens resembling the black cattle of 
Holland marshes, and the finer forms of Yorkshire and 
Durham assuming the style and quality of the noted 
cattle of Holstein and Jutland; and yet it may not cer- 
tainly be known whether the ancient emigrants from 
those localities brought this stock to England, or whether 



No. 2. Fat Steer Challenger, 
Grand Champion at International 
Live Stock Show 1903. Owned 
by University of Nebraska. 




No. 3. Pure Bred Short Horn Cow, Roan Marvel. Owned by 
University of Wisconsin. 



farmers' friend 187 



this similarity is the result of climate and keeping. It 
was, at least, a race very distinct from that of Ireland 
and the west of England, with long horns, thick skins, 
and a heavy coat of hair, well suited for their protec- 
tion in a climate subject to continuous seasons of rain. 
It is w6ll known in later times that Dutch and Danish 
importations modified these cattle of the east of Eng- 
land, and suggested the more recent and greater improve- 
ments of Charles and Robert Colling, commencing about 
the era of our revolution, and continued successfully since 
by Messrs. Bates, Booth, Townley, and others in England, 
and Thorne, Alexanders, and other breeders in this coun- 
try. 

The story of the bull Hubback, the founder of the mod- 
ern short horn, has often been told. He was purchased 
in 1783 by Charles Colling of his brother and a Mr. 
Waistell for eight guineas, and is said to have been from 
a cow grazed by a poor man on the highway. It has 
long been a matter of controversy whether he was a 
pure-bred Teeswater, the short horn of that day. He 
was somewhat below the usual size of the Teeswaters, 
yellow, red, and white in color, of a fine, compact form, 
admirable touch, and so easily fattened that he early be- 
came useless as a bull. The cow, also purchased by 
Colling, acquired fat very rapidly, and never again bred. 
Either from mere curiosity, or from a suspicion that he 
was impairing the constitution of his animals by contin- 
uous breeding in too small a circle. Colling attempted 
the experiment of infusing some of the Galloway blood, 
which was confined, it is understood, to a single cross 
upon certain individuals of his herd. At the sale of 
Charles Colling, in 1810, forty-seven animals produced 
8,911 guineas. Robert Colling, not so renowned, but 
esteemed by many quite as judicious a breeder, sold 
sixty-one (but six of them bulls) for 7,484 guineas. High 
prices have been maintained by later breeders. Mr. 
Bates, in 1850, sold one family of Duchess stock, including 
calves, at an average of $581. Lord Ducie's herd, in 
1853, realized an average of $760 for sixty-two animals. 
Individuals of superior excellence, from the day when 



188 farmers' friend 



Colling 's "Comet" sold fof 1,000 guineas, have com- 
manded fabulous prices. Similar prices have been ob- 
tained in this country. 

There were at least five-hundred herds of pure-bred 
short horns in Great Britain ten years ago, and from 
six to seven thousand head are registered in the herd 
book every alternate year at that period, and these num- 
bers are yearly increasing in accelerated ratio. 

Derived from a large breed, the improved short horn 
is heavy, less in height than the originals of the Tees, 
rounder and deeper in the trunk, the limbs shorter, chest 
and back broader, appearing less in bulk, while really 
greater in weight. The skin is light colored, hair red- 
dish brown or white or mixed, the muzzle flesh colored, 
the horns shorter and lighter colored than in the for- 
mer breed, the skin soft to the touch, the form square, 
the shoulder upright, and the hindquarter large. The 
color cannot be characterized by a single term, varying 
greatly from a pure white to a rich red, a mixture being 
the fashion, known as roan or strawberry. The skin 
should be velvety and not too thin, while the hair should 
be plentiful and of a mossy softness. The head of the 
female is finer and more tapering than that of the male, 
the neck thinner and lighter, and her shoulder inclining 
to narrow towards the chin. The short horn looks 
smaller than he is. He excels all other stock in facility 
of fattening, making good and heavy beef hn thirty 
monthe and even in two years. 

The idea is somewhat prevalent that short horn cows 
are not good milkers. It has been obtained, without 
doubt, from the fact of the well known efforts made to 
perfect their fattening qualities, in accordance with 
Bakewell's saying that "all was useless that was not 
beef"; and it is true of many families of short horns. 
Others are superior milkers. The original Holstein blood 
of the Durham and Holderness districts was famous for 
its milking quality, and it is difficult to breed it out with 
all the culture which modern improved short horns have 
received. The modern Holderness stock at this day 
chiefly supplies the London dairies, and many of their 



farmers' friend 189 



best milkers have strong strains of the improved blood. 
The Duchess stock, of great celebrity and purity, bred 
by Mr. Bates, was distinguished for its excellence in this 
respect. Some short horns in this country have yielded 
ample supplies of milk of excellent quality. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE. 

The leading cattle breeders of Britain have of late 
years, for the most part aimed to establish in their stock 
some particular property in a high degree, beef or milk, 
according to circumstances, being the leading object. 
Hence it has occurred 'that British cattle have latterly 
been classed under the heads of "beaf breeds" and 
"milk breeds". Prominent among the latter is the Ayr- 
shire breed, which originated in the county of Ayr, Scot- 
land, and within the last fifty years has been disseminated 
over every part of that country where dairying is much 
practiced. 

They have been introduced into the United States and 
the British provinces of North America, and, at the pres- 
ent time, are probably more extensively kept as a dairy 
breed than any other in the world. 

Importations of Ayrshire cattle into this country were 
made upwards of twenty years ago, but the animals were 
neither numerous nor generally in the hands of persons 
who took much pains to increase them. It was not, there- 
fore, until a comparatively late day that the Ayrshire 
were much known here, or that specimens were suffic- 
iently numerous to indicate the permanent establishment 
of the breed in this country. 

A few remarks in regard to the origin of this valuable 
breed of cattle, in connection with their comparative 
value for dairy purposes, may not be out of place. 

It is evident that the modern Ayrshire breed presents 
a wide contrast to that which occupied the western por- 
tion of Scotland many years ago. It follows, therefore, 
that the modern breed, like various other valuable breeds 
of domestic animals, originated in crossing. The ques- 
tion as to the breeds from which it was derived will be 
brieflv considered. 



190 farmers' friend 



Various accounts represent that the Earl of March- 
mont, some time between 1724 and 1740, introduced to his 
estates in Berwickshire some cattle, conjectured (their 
history was not positively known) to be of the Holder- 
ness or Teeswater breed, and that not long afterwards 
some of the stock was carried to estates belonging to the 
same nobleman in that part of Ayrshire called Kyle. 

But it is not improbable that the cheif nucleus of the 
improved breed was the "Dunlop stock", so-called, which 
appears to have been possessed by a distinguished family 
by the name of Dunlop, in the Cunningham district of 
Ayrshire, as early as 1780. This stock was derived, at 
least in part, from animals imported from Holland. The 
Dunlop cow soon became noted. 

Professor Low says: "From all the evidence of which, 
in the absence of authentic documents, the case admits, 
the dairy breed of Ayrshire cows owes the characteristics 
which distinguish it from the older race, to a mixture of 
the blood of the races of the continent, and of the dairy 
breed of Alderney." 

In addition to the foregoing evidence respecting the 
origin of the Ayrshire cattle, it should be stated that the 
present leading type of the breed was formed in part by 
an infusion of the blood of the Kyloe or West Highland 
breed. Theophilus Parton, of Swinley farm, near Dairy, 
Ayrshire, about fifty years ago took great pains to es- 
tablish a herd of what were deemed the best Ayrshire 
cattle, into which he infused a strain of the West High- 
land blood, the particular degree of which is not publicly 
or generally known. The Swinley stock differs from the 
older Ayrshire in having a shorter head, with more 
breadth across the eyes, more upright and spreading 
horns, more hair, and that of a more mossy character, 
and generally better constitutions. They are also some- 
what smaller boned than the old stock, though from their 
superior symmetry and greater tendency to fatten they 
are fully equal to the former in weight of carcass when 
slaughtered. The colors preferred are brown, or brown 
and white, the colors being distinctly defined. 

In the competition at Ayr, in 1861, for a prize offered 



farmers' friend 191 



by tlie Duke of Athol, the average weight of milk per 
day, for two days, from six cows, was about fifty pounds, 
the cows being milked twice a day. The cow which took 
the first prize gave an average of fifty-seven pounds per 
day. On this occasion, the Duke of Athol stated that the 
cow (then in his possession) which received the first prize 
of the previous year had given an average of upwards of 
twelve quarts of milk per day for a year, actual measure- 
ment having shown a product of one thousand one hun- 
dred and ten and a half gallons in something less than 
twelve months. Comparatively few accurate trials have 
been made with specimens of the breed in this country. 
One of four imported Ayrshire cows, gave in one year 
three thousand eight hundred and sixty-four quarts of 
milk, beer measure. One of the cows, imported by the 
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, in 
1837, was said to have afforded sixteen pounds of butter 
per week, for several weeks in succession. The imported 
cow, Jean Armour, in 1862, gave an average of forty-nine 
pounds of milk a day for one hundred and fourteen days, 
commencing June 1st; and for the month of July her 
average was fifty-one pounds thirteen ounces per day. 
Her milk for three days in July yielded six pounds 
of butter. Her live weight at the close of the trial was 
nine hundred and sixty-seven pounds. 

It will be understood, from what has already been said, 
that the dairy is the leading object with the breeders of 
Ayrshire cattle. At the same time the important fact 
has not been overlooked, that to breed and perpetuate a 
profitable dairy stock, regard must be had to hardiness 
and strength of constitution, and also to such fattening 
tendencies as will insure a profitable return from calves, 
fattened for veal, from steers, reared for beef, and from 
cows, which, having served their turn in the dairy, are 
at last dried of their milk and prepared for the shambles. 

Few trials have yet been made with the Ayrshires in 
reference to fattening in this country, as most of the 
males have been kept for bulls, and the females have 
seldom been turned for beef till too far advancd in years 
to breed. 



192 farmers' friend 



HOLSTEIN AND DUTCH CATTLE. 

The Holstein cattle are not only large and well de- 
veloped, making good beef cattle, yet, at tlie same time, 
are extra good milkers for the dairy. They have not 
been imported in so large nmnbers as the short horns, 
nor subject to so much speculative dealing, yet of late 
years they are coming rapidly into notice as a very profit- 
able breed — for the stock raiser or for dairying. 

Now, properly speaking, everything from Holland is 
Dutch; so, with propriety, these Holsteins might be called 
Holland or Dutch cattle, were there not a class of breed 
of black and white cattle in this country, known and rec- 
ognized under the name of Dutch or Belted, which are 
totally diiferent from the Holstein or Hollard cattle in 
most respects. 

The Dutch or Belted cattle come from Germany. They 
were first raised more for their peculiar markings than 
their superior qualities ; are almost entirely black, with 
a white band or stripe of white around their middles, and 
are generally known as Belted cattle. In answer to ques- 
tions whether the so-called Belted and spotted Holsteins 
are the same breed of cattle, ditfering only in form of 
these color markings, we would say that most decidedly 
they are not the same, coming as they do from diif erent 
sections of the country. Belted cattle are never seen in 
Holland, and are of very different form, smaller, differ- 
ent temperament, and yield much smaller quantities of 
milk than the spotted cattle. In short, the Belted cattle 
are not Holsteins, and are not admitted to the Holstein 
Herd-book. 

ALDERNEYS, GUERNSEYS AND JERSEYS. 

These are cattle imported from the British Channel 
Islands of the same names. While small in size, yet their 
milk is noted for exceeding richness, and the butter for 
its rich golden color, hardness of texture, and nutty 
flavor. They are emphatically butter breeds. The reg- 
ulation of their breeding in their native homes is very 




No. I. Pure Bred Jersey Cow "Double Time". Record for the year ending 
September 24, 1906, Milk 11,357.9 lbs., average per cent fat 4.58; Butter 606.7 
lbs. 




farmers' friend 195 



strict ; and the breed is preserved from intermixture with 
other breeds by strong and arbitrary laws, very carefully 
enforced. No cattle are allowed to enter the islands (ex- 
cept for slaughter within a certain number of days), with 
the exception of oxen for draught. 

The Jersey cattle's predominant characteristic is but- 
ter qualification, and they have no superior in this. ^ But 
have the extra pains been exerted to develop the size of 
this breed that has marked the development of the fore- 
going breeds? Have not the Jersey breeders rather 
scouted size and tried to improve only butter qualifica- 
tions, to the detriment of size? The Jerseys breed very 
young, thus stunting growth ; we have heard of instances 
of breeding at fifteen months old; that is dropping a 
calf at that age. Also have heard of Jerseys making one 
pound of butter from four quarts of milk ; and this seems 
to be the great object. Those actually exported from 
these islands are generally from Jersey, where the cattle 
are much the same as those of Alderney, small, with 
tapering heads, and of a delicate fawn color, and occa- 
sionally a smoky grey. The Guernsey cow is esteemed 
by some even more highly than the Alderney ; it is rather 
larger, coarser, and more of a red, brindled in color. The 
addition of one or two cows of these breeds to a dairy, 
materially improves the appearance of the butter made. 

THE DEVONS. 

This breed of cattle do not average so large as the short 
horns, consequently are more active, and better adapted 
for hilly and rolling pastures. They make the best of 
working cattle, being quick walkers, and docile dispo- 
sition. As milkers they are not equal in quantity to 
Ayrshires, but the milk is rich in quality. They are a 
breed for general utility. They are a bright cherry red 
color. 

THE HEREFOEDS. 

Bodily, this breed is one-fourth larger than the Devons. 



196 farmers' friend 



They are shorter legged and more beefy. Their general 
color is red, and white, or mottled face. They are em- 
phatically a breed for beef, being good feeders, easily 
kept, and possessing, when slaughtered, beautiful lean 
meat, largely in proportion to fat. They are fair milk- 
ers, yet not so good as the Ayrshires. 



NATIVE CATTLE. 



The introduction of native cattle into Mexico by the 
Spaniards, as early as 1525, was probably the origin of 
our vast Texan herds. In fact they resemble, at this 
late day, the native cattle of Spain, with their long horns, 
and leggy bodies. From 1607 to 1622 the English made 
an importation to their colony on the James river, Vir- 
ginia ; the Dutch, in New York, imported cattle commenc- 
ing in 1625; importations were made by the English, in 
Massachusetts, in 1624, and following years ; the Swedes, 
in New Jersey, in 1627; the Danes, in New Hampshire, 
in 1631; importations were made in Maryland, in 1633; 
in North and South Carolina, in 1660 and 1670 ; in Penn- 
sylvania, in 1662 ; all by English. From these importa- 
tions, in the main, our native stock have sprung, with no 
distinct breed, or specific characteristics. While they 
may not have been up to the standard of the heavy body 
and points of the short horn, yet they were of consider- 
able merit as milkers. 

The length of time elapsed, with the absence of all 
records render it impossible to trace any direct pedigree 
of our native cattle. An attempt Ims been made by some 
writers to trace the origin of our common stock to the 
English Devon. It is quite likely that this breed did 
mingle largely in the early importations, from the fact 
that early settlers of our country were from the South 
of England, or embarked from ports in that district 
where the Devon cattle at that time were the prevailing 
breed. 



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No. 2. "Blackrock" International Grand Champion Steer, 1905, State Col 
lege of Iowa. 




No. 3. "Disclosure" Pure Bred Hereford Steer, First Prize at International 
Chicago, 1906. 




No. 3. Pure Bred Chevoit Yearling, First Prize International Live Stock 
Show, 1906, Owned by State Agricultural College of Wisconsin. 



farmers' friend 



201 



CHAPTEE II. 

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

THE CHEST, ABDOMEN AND URINARY ORGANS. 

CONTENTS OF CHAPTER. 

Diseases of Respiratory Organs. — Inflammation of 
the Lungs and its treatment — Description and 
treatment of Pleurisy — Bronchitis and its rem- 
edies — The treatment of Catarrh or Common Cold — 
Malignant Catarrh and what to do for it — Other 
diseases. 

Diseases of Stomach and Abdomen. — Bloating or 
Hooven and how to relieve it — Overloaded 
Paunch and its treatment — Impaction of the Third 
Stomach — Dry Murrain — Mad Staggers — Inflamma- 
tion of Bowels and what to do for it — Diarrhoea — 
Scours — Dysentery and Bloody Flux — Scours in 
Calves and how to check — Spasmodic Colic — Belly- 
ache — Peritonitis — Choking with various articles — 
Worms. 

Diseases of Urinary and Generative Organs. 
Inflammation of the Kidneys — Inflammation of 
the Bladder — Bloody Urine — Red Water-^Abor- 
tion in Cows — Removal of Dead Calf — Treat- 
ment of cows before calving — Milk Fever and its 
cause — Inflammation of Womb and how to treat it 
— Bloody Milk — Garget — Mammitis — Milk Stop- 
page — Obstruction of Teats — Leaking Milk — Sore 
Teats — Warts — Castration of Calves. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

inflammation of the lungs. 

The causes of this disease are over exertion and sub- 
sequent exposure, or exposure alone. It is ushered in 



202 farmers' friend 



by a fit of shivering, a drooping appearance, loss of appe- 
tite, and subsequent feverishness 

DESTROYING LICE ON CATTLE. 

Aloes in fine powder is a specific for the destruction 
of lice on all animals, and as it has not poisonous proper- 
ties, its intense bitterness being what kills, it can be 
freely applied, and as it is to be used in a dry state, its 
application is as safe in cold as in warm weather, con- 
sequently is free from all objections urged against other 
remedies. Use with a fine pepper-box, dusting and rub- 
bing it in all over, and then curry out inside of a week. 
Or, take a pound of fresh lard, a fourth of a pint of ker- 
osene oil and four ounces of sulphur powder — of flowers 
of sulphur ; mix them thoroughly. With this mixture rub 
the animal's head, also along the spine, and upon the 
shoulder and brisket, and under the thighs, and wherever 
the vermin is seen. Repeat the operation once a week 
until the lice disappear, which will not be long. Or, take 
quassia chips, steep in water and wash the animal thor- 
oughly. One application will kill the lice, and in case 
•of nits that are not hatched, the second application, ap- 
plied a few days after, will entirely rid the stock of th.e 
vermin. 

GRUBS IN THE SKIN. 

The grubs are produced by the eggs deposited by the 
gad-fly during the latter part of the summer. They may 
be prevented by moistening the hairs on the shoulders, 
back, and loins of cattle, every other day, with a decoc- 
tion of white oak or walnut leaves. "When present, they 
may be removed simply by squeezing them out with the 
fingers. When present in large numbers, they of course 
cause considerable irritation in the skin and underlying 
tissues, and thus may interfere with the well-being and 
thriving of the cattle. 

SELF-SUCKING COW. 

A self-sucking cow is prevented from thus indulging 
by an Illinoisian, who puts a halter or strap over her 



FARMERS FRIEND 



20: 



head that will hold a common bridle-bit in her mouth. 
She eats and drinks just as well as without it after a 
little, and is finally cured of the propensity. 

ARTICLES IN THE EYE. 

Hay seed, chaff, etc., may be removed by a pair of 
small operating forceps, or with the rounded point of a 
lead pencil covered by a soft handkerchief. Lime, sand 
and harsh articles can be washed out with water and a 
small syringe. In some instances the animal may have 
to be cast before it can be done. The consequent inflam- 
mation may be treated the same as it is for horses, as 
is many other diseases such as sprains, bruises, wounds, 
etc. 

ANTHRAX BLACK TONGUE BLACK LEG. 

The above names, as well as many others for the same 
general disorder, are merely indicitive of the most promi- 
nent symptoms of a disease which has been very fatal 
among the young in the west, for some years. It seems 
to be a constitutional disorder, which changes the char- 
acter of the secretions as well as the blood. While it is 
contagious from contact with the discharges of poisonous 
matter of an affected animal, often destroying nearly all 
the young stock in a herd, yet its origin may arise from 
local circumstances and surroundings, and spread over 
a section if not checked at once. One of the peculiarities 
of the disease is that it attacks the young and apparently 
most thriving stock; also, the suddenness with which it 
terminates, the animal often being found dead in the field 
before notice has been had of its being sick. There is no 
doubt but what it is, to some extent, caused by too full 
feeding of dry corn husks in gathered fields, combined 
with local influences. The first symptoms of an attack 
will be plethora, feverishness, a halting on one limb, and 
excessive tenderness of the skin in spots, to be followed 
by extensive swellings of those parts, and deposits of 
black tarry blood, which evolves gas among the tissues, 
which gives forth a peculiar crackling sound if the hand 
is pressed over the spot. Bloody, yellowish matter may 



204 farmers' friend 



ooze forth, the spot may slough off, leaving an ichorous 
ulcer. It may take the form of eruptive blisters, which 
break, dry up with gangrenous appearance, and gradually 
spread over adjacent parts. It may take the same form 
of blisters, but appear on muzzle, jaw and tongue, leaving 
behind ulcerous sores, with bloody, yellowish discharge 
from the mouth. It may take an external form 
with bloody discharge from nostrils, bloody dung 
and black urine, and death in a short time. An- 
imals which are affected must be separated from 
the well. Dead carcasses and all discharges must 
be buried, and stables where they have been kept 
disinfected, if success is to be expected. While treat- 
ment is uncertain and unsatisfactory in the worst cases, 
yet many can be saved by proper care, and more can be 
prevented from taking it. After the separation of the 
sick from the well, give those which are well two ounces 
of bisulphate of soda, each, in a mach, twice daily for 
three days, thereafter once each day as long as there is 
any danger. Give the affected animals two drachms of 
chlorate of potash, three times daily. Inject into the 
bowels, daily, a weak solution of carbolic acid and water, 
one part of acid to one hundred parts of water. Eub the 
tender spots, or those parts which show signs of swelling, 
with any stimulating liniment, or even turpentine. Open 
the blisters and the ulcerous spots and thoroughly cleanse 
them by the use of the following: — 

Chloride of Zinc, one scruple; 
Water, half a pint. — Mix. 

Apply this lotion three times daily. No meat nor milk 
of an affected animal must be fed to anything, as it is 
fatal in its effects. 

Another remedy for black leg. — 

Black leg can rarely be cured but it may in a great 
measure be prevented. Whenever calves lie around and 
seem stupid they should be treated to hypo-sulphite of 
soda, at the rate of an ounce per week divided in several 
doses. It may be pulverized and mixed with bran. 
Another preventive is regularity in feeding, never allow- 



farmers' friend 205 



ing cattle to get excessively fat nor to be greatly reduced 
in flesh. The only damaging effect that dry weather can 
have is to keep the calves from taking the needed exer- 
cise. In black leg the blood becomes over-loaded with 
carbon, and once it sets in there is small hope of any 
cure. We knew one case cured by vigorous applications 
of Jackson's liniment on the leg, between the affected 
spot and the body, making a running sore which healed 
in time, and we have known others relieved by bleeding 
in the fore foot, just above the hoof and then driving 
them to induce circulation of the blood. The carcass and 
hide of calves that die of black leg should be burned, and 
if they have been buried, the graves should be fenced up, 
as it will reappear years afterwards if such precautions 
are not taken. It is not safe to skin them or meddle 
with the carcass if there are any sores on the hands, as, 
if the blood comes in contact with the raw flesh or in 
any way enters the circulation, it is apt to produce an 
ugly sore. 

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE CONTAGIOUS APHTHA. 

This disease affects cattle, swine, sheep, and is of a 
highly contagious nature. It is not so much to be 
dreaded from its directly consequent fatality as it is for 
its after consequences — the condition of weakness and 
depression in which it leaves its subjects, and from which 
it is said to cost, in most cases, more than the future 
value of the animals to recover them. The disease attacks 
the mouth and feet simultaneously. The mouth will be 
found hot and covered with blisters, the tongue and lips 
being also affected. These blisters burst, and the surface 
becomes raw, inflamed and swollen. In aggravated cases 
the tongue protrudes from the mouth and is covered with 
ulcers, which suppurate and cause the tissues to slough 
away. The disease frequently commences in the hind 
feet, in consequence of which the animal is continually 
stretching out first one and then the other hind foot and 
shaking them. On examination, blisters and watery pus- 
tules are found around the coronet and between the digits, 
the parts are inflamed and swollen, and the animal can- 
not be urged to rise. In some cases the feet becomes 



206 farmers' friend 



ulcerated, the hoofs slough away, in part or wholly, leav- 
ing the bones exposed to view. With such a condition of 
things there must he much suffering, with high fever, 
eyes red, lungs congested, breath fetid. In milking cows 
the teats and udder become inflamed and ulcerated, ab- 
scesses are formed, and sloughing takes place, which of 
course renders the milk totally unfit for use. 

The treatment consists in the separation of the sick 
from the well, and administering two ounces of sulphate 
of soda daily, to the well, as a preventive. The sick are 
to have a pound of Epsom salts each as a laxative, at the 
commencement of the treatment. An astringent moutJi- 
wash is to be used, composed as follows : — 

Borax, one ounce; 
Tincture of Myrrh, one fluid ounce; 
Water, one quart. — Mix. 

Use twice each day. If the teats are also affected, a 
weak solution of half a drachm of carbolic acid in a quart 
of water, can be used with good effect, following with 
a dressing of glycerine. The feet should be thoroughly 
cleansed with water, then a rag drawn through between 
the toes, followed by an application, with a feather, of: — 

Oil of Vitriol, one fluid ounce; 
Water, four fluid ounces. — ^Mix. 

Apply twice each day, and keep the feet tied up in 
tarred cloths. All detached pieces of horn must be re- 
moved at once, and the animals must be isolated from 
the rest of the herd. 

EPIDEMIC OPHTHALMIA. 

This is a disease of the eyes which takes an epidemic 
form, whether from contagion, infection or otherwise, 
has not yet been determined, but when once an animal 
in a herd becomes aiTected, it soon spreads with more 
or less severity, among the rest of the herd, as well as 
among the neighboring herds with which such animals 
may come in contact. The eye at first begins to appear 
raw, and after a day or two a sky blue spot appears just 



farmers' FRIEND 207 



below the sight, which continues to grow until it covers 
the whole eye, then assumes a lighter color; after this, 
it grows smaller and sticks out from the ball of the eye 
about the size of a pea. The animal appears in a great 
deal of pain all the time until it becomes totally blind. 

To faciliate treatment, and to check its spread, the 
diseased ones should, as soon as anything appears amiss 
with the eyes, be separated from the apparently sound 
ones, and be placed in a roomy, airy, dry shed, which 
should be darkened without interfering with proper ven- 
tilation. The cattle should be kept therein during day- 
time, but should be given liberty on an enclosed pasture 
every night, away from other cattle. Then give to each 
one over two years old, a pound and a half, to those from 
one to two years old, one pound, and to younger ones 
according to age, from four to eight ounces of Epsom or 
glauber salts, dissolved in from a pint to a quart of warm 
water, and to which is added from one to two ounces of 
powdered ginger. Give sloppy food, into each ration of 
which is added a drachm of powdered nitrate of potassa; 
also give unripe fruit, sliced to prevent choking, and 
fresh cut grass during the day, which need not be much 
when they go out nights. To the root of each horn, or 
otherwise, fasten a folding of cloth in such a manner 
that it hangs over both eyes, and a few inches below them. 
This should be kept wet during the day with a lotion com- 
posed of 

Chloiride of Zinc, one drachm; 
Carbolic Acid, two drachms; 
Water, one gallon. — ^Mix. 

Apply to the cheeky below each eye, to a space of about 
two square inches, a small portion of a blister, composed 
of 

Spanish Flies, two drachms; 
Lard, two tablespoonfuls. — ^Mix. 

Shave off the hair and rub well in, so as not to leave 
any on the surface which can get into the eye. This 
should be applied in the morning, and be washed off six 
hours thereafter with soap suds and a soft sponge, and 



208 FAKMERS' FEIEND 



a coat of lard applied to the blistered surface once a 
day thereafter. 

After recovery, it will be proper to still keep the cattle 
for some time, say a month, away from other cattle. 
The shed should then be thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, 
and whitewashed, and not be used for at least one month 
thereafter for any live stock. As this disease is commun- 
icable to sheep, these should not be allowed to come near 
such diseased cattle. 

CORN STALK DISEASE. 

Western farmers have been subjected ever since there 
was a corn-growing west to losses, sometimes serious, 
among the cattle turned on to the stalk fields, which is 
the custom each fall and will be this fall to an unusual 
degree. The disease is mysterious and recent investi- 
.gations by the government have not by any means cleared 
up the mystery. The Department of Agriculture has 
kept experts employed for two or three years in different 
parts of the west, but so far they have not been able to 
report anything whatever which was of any benefit to 
farmers. The farmer is compelled, therefore, to turn 
back to the old theory that the deaths were due to the 
change from a succulent diet to one of very dry fodder 
and that the deaths were occasioned by a lack of sufficient 
water. They have attempted to remedy this and have in 
many cases done so by the free use of salt which would 
encourage drinking large amounts of water, and more 
by seeing to it personally that each animal, the weak as 
well as the strong, actually drank the proper amount of 
water to soak up and digest this unusually dry substance. 
It should be stated that November and December, the 
months in which cattle are turned into the stalks are com- 
paratively rainless months in the west, that the atmos- 
phere is very dry the corn blades thin, and hence it is 
about the driest form of feed that ever goes into the ani- 
mals stomach. 

May it not be true that this corn stalk disease is largely 
indigestion and that animals that lack the proper diges- 



FARMERS FRIEND 



209 



live power are the ones that succumb 1 While, however, we 
think that a large per cent, possibly nine-tenths, of the 
losses might be avoided by supplying salt and water 
freely and seeing that the animals actually drink the 
water, the observed facts seem to indicate that some fields 
are, entirely independent of the water supply, peculiarly 
fatal to cattle. It is this part of the mystery that the 
scientists have endeavored so far in vain to clear up, and 
therefore all that can be suggested to farmers is to fall 
back on the old ideas and methods and thus avoid as 
far as possible the dangers that they have known to be 
incident to turning cattle, especially in dry times, onto 
dry corn stalks. We have no doubt that some time in 
the future our scientific friends will be able to help us. 
They are not to be blamed for their inability to solve in 
a brief two or three years all the mysteries connected 
with this subject. 

WHITE SCOURS IN CALVES. 

One of the fatal and much dreaded diseases among 
calves, and one that is so lasting in its effects upon the 
cattle industry, is that of white scours. It attacks beef 
and dairy calves alike. 

The disease is not fully understood as yet, but it is safe 
to say it is due to some form of bacteria. The disease is 
infectious, and when once established on a farm nothing 
but close attention will eradicate it. 

White scours attack new born calves. It makes its 
appearance upon birth of the first few days after. In- 
stead of the characteristic evacuations of a new calf, they 
are whitish and of a very offensive odor, it loses appetite, 
and is soon too sick to stand up, and soon dies. As a 
rule no treatment is a sure cure. The disease is too far 
along before the real condition is realized and treatment 
avails little. 

Prevention is possible. When the disease breaks out 
it will go through the herd if nothing is done to prevent 
the spread. 

It may last from year to year if calves are coming fre- 
quent enough to perpetuate the disease. 



210 farmers' friend 



It is quite generally conceded that white scours is due 
to a bacteria and that this bacteria enters the sytem 
through the umbilical cord. There seems to be some 
relation between contagious abortion and white scours. 
But however the disease may get a start it must be 
checked at once. 

The droppings of the sick calf must be disinfected and 
not tracked all over. The dead calf must be burned and 
the pen and wherever the calf has been thoroughly dis- 
infected. A thorough dusting of all litter and floors 
with air slaked lime or a sprinkling with corrosive sub- 
limate solution, one part to 2, 500 parts, and a thorough 
drainage of the stable will kill the germs. Let the sun- 
shine in. 

DIARRHOEA OR SCOURS. — Sure cure for calves. 

Take one-half teacup of wheat flour and stir in water 
until it forms a paste. Give to the calf at one dose, this 
will cure the ordinary scours so common among calves 
fed on sour milk. 

FEEDING THE CALVES. 

Hon. F. D. Coburn, Secretary of the Kansas State 
board of Agriculture, asked the opinion of the leading 
dairymen of the country on feeding separator skim milk 
to calves. The subject is covered thoroughly and I take 
pleasure in reproducing the questions and answers in full 
for the benefit of the farmers. — Editor. 

Are calves successfully reared on separator milk, and 
is it more likely than other skim milk to disagree with 
calves? If so, how should it he used to guard against 
ill effects? Also, is siveet or sour skim milk best for 
calves and pigs? 

Hoard. Yes, provided it is fed sweet, and with sound 
judgment. Up to the time the calf is six weeks old, feed 
the milk sweet; feed it warm, and feed three or four times 
a day, in small quantities. A tablespoonful of flaxseed 
meal is a good thing to mix with each feed ; scald the meal 



farmers' FRIEND 211 



by pouring a pint of boiling water on it, and then mix 
with the milk. After six weeks old feed the milk and 
flaxseed three times a day, with a few oats each day. 
Guard the calves from the torment of flies ; on account of 
flies it is better to have the calves come in the fall. 

Haecker. We rear about thirty calves each winter 
on separator skim milk, and find no difficulty in growing 
them fine and thrifty. The calf is allowed to suck once ; 
it is then removed and one feeding period allowed to pass 
without offering it any milk; this is done so the calf will 
drink without the finger. The first week it receives a 
light ration of whole milk, fresh from the cow; the sec- 
ond week it gets half whole milk and half skim milk ; the 
third week and until it is weaned it receives skim milk, 
a spoonful of ground flax and hay. We feed no grain 
to calves intended for the dairy, other than the ground 
flax meal. By flax meal we do not mean oil meal or 
oil cake, but the ground flax, containing all the oil there 
is in the flaxseed. We used to feed oats or ground bar- 
ley to calves, but found that many of them acquired the 
habit of laying on flesh, which is a permanent injury to 
the dairy calf. The quantity of ground flax used daily 
varies from a t'easpoonful to a tablespoonful in 
each mess of milk, according to the size of di- 
gesting capacity of the calves. The flax meal is 
not scalded as is usually done with flaxseed, but 
the meal, if dry, is stirred into the milk just before feed- 
ing. When the calf is young great care should be taken 
to always feed the same quantity, and at a temperature 
of at least 90 degrees. After the calf is a few weeks old 
the skim milk and flax meal may be gradually increased. 
Scours are generally caused by overfeeding, or by milk 
fed when cool. From four to six pints of milk is a fair 
ration for a calf the first week; feed twice a day and keep 
comfortable and clean, and feed from a clean tin pail. 

Wallace. Calves can be reared successfully on sep- 
arator milk, provided it is fed sweet. It should be bal- 
anced up for the first three or four weeks with flaxseed 
jelly and corn meal ; the former may be omitted later. 
Feed milk sweet to all young stock. Study nature. The 



212 farmers' friend 



cow and brood sow feed their young witli milk sweet; 
they feed it warm and they feed it often, 

Wilson. Calves do well on skim milk if it is fed warm, 
and some meal, like corn or oatmeal, added to it; oil 
meal is not suitable because it is too rich in protein just 
as skim milk is. 

Dean. AVe feed separator skim milk to our calves 
with no bad results. It is largely fancy that separator 
skim milk injures calves. The separator does nothing 
to the milk to harm it, no more than if it were turned 
round quickly in a pail. Sweet milk for young pigs or 
calves; but for grown hogs, weighing 80 to 100 pounds or 
over, we have found that sour milk gave slightly better 
results in fattening. 

Wing. Separator skim milk is the same as skim milk 
from any other source and having the same fat content. 
Sweet skim milk is nearly indispensable for calves, and 
is much better than sour for pigs. 

Goodrich. Separator skim milk is all right for 
calves, if clean and warm and sweet; but if it is run oif 
at the creamery into a filthy, stinking tank, then hauled 
home and not fed the calves for 12 to 24 hours, it may 
kill the calves. The remedy is take the milk fresh from 
the separator, and keep it clean and sweet until fed. 
Sweet milk is decidedly better for calves and young pigs 
than sour, but after pigs are two or three months old they 
may do fully as well if some of the milk is sour. 

Alvord. Until a month old the calf must have some 
new milk, or separator milk must be supplemented so as 
to feed fat to the calf. After the calf begins to eat grass, 
or hay, or meal, separator milk is as good as any. Sweet 
separator (or skim) milk is preferable for calves under 
six months old. 

Gurler. I raise calves quite successfully on separator 
milk. For calves always feed it sweet and as warm as 
the cow's milk, and feed no more of it than would be fed 
of the mother's milk. Add some oil meal or corn meal to 
take the place of the cream. Many calves are ruined 
by feeding too much skim milk. Don't have the milk 
too sour, if for pigs. 



farmers' FRIEND 213 



Curtiss. Yes, they may be reared on separator milk 
with entire success. It is not more likely to disagree 
with them than milk of similar composition prepared by 
other methods. Sweet milk is better than sour, but it 
should always be in uniform condition, and not partially 
sweet and partially sour, alternating. Replace the fat by 
a carbonaceous product — corn meal, oats and flaxseed 
are better than oil meal. 

Dodge. Separator milk is good for calves but should 
be used sweet. 

Dawley. We have no difficulty in rearing calves on 
separator skim milk, which should be fed them warm and 
a tablespoonful of linseed meal jelly added to each calf's 
portion. Feeding in this way, and not allowing the 
calves to gorge themselves, no ill effects have been ex- 
perienced. Judging by chemical analysis and practical 
results, as we have been feeding sweet skim milk to our 
calves, we are convinced that it is of far more value than 
sour milk. Some experimenters, however, claim that 
sour milk is best for the pigs, and I am inclined to believe 
they are right. 

Mathieson. I feed the mother's milk for a short time, 
until I get the calf to eat a little grain; then I feed sep- 
arator milk and have no trouble with it. Never feed 
sour milk to calves. 

Carlyle. Calves can be just as successfully reared on 
separator skim milk as upon any other kind of milk. It 
is not more likely to disagree with calves, only that they 
drink more of it than their stomach can hold, thus caus- 
ing bowel trouble. Give a young calf a portion of its 
mother's milk, from a pail, three times a day, for about 
two weeks, and then gradually change to skim milk, 
feeding in small quantities, never allowing the calf to 
gorge itself. By mixing a little porridge, made by boil- 
ing oil meal in about six parts of water, with the skim 
milk, the finest kind of dairy calves will be grown. Sweet 
milk is always best for calves or pigs. 

Adams. Yes, if kept sweet there is no disagreement. 
Sweet milk is most decidedly best both for calves and 
pigs. 



214 farmers' friend 



Boardman. Tliey have been successfully reared on 
separator milk, but great care should be exercised in 
feeding it, and all cans and utensils should be kept thor- 
oughly cleaned. A small quantity should be fed at the 
start and gradually increased. The milk should be used 
as sweet as possible. 

Monrad. Yes, certainly, but it should be pasteurized 
at the creamery, so as to be returned sweet. It should 
be fed at least three times a day at blood temperature, 
with an addition of flaxseed jelly. The first week the 
calf should have its mother's milk, and then tapering 
down to skim milk during the second week. The addi- 
tion of a little rennet extract, or dissolved tablets, is a 
good thing. 

Robertson. Sweet milk always for calves under three 
months, also for pigs for a month after being weaned; 
fed warm (90 degrees Fahrenheit) in both cases. 

Fraser. Calves are raised successfully on separator 
milk, and it is no more likely to disagree than other skim 
milk. Feed warm and sweet. Sweet milk is best for 
both calves and pigs. 

Brandt. Yes, they can be successfully reared on skim 
milk. Care should be exercised when first feeding the 
milk, gradually increasing quantity until the animal 
seems to have been accustomed to it. When young, it 
should be sweet ; when calves are two months old sour 
milk will do as well. 

Morgan. Under the gravity process of raising cream 
there is usuall}^ considerable butter fat left in the milk, 
while in separator milk, the fat is all taken out; this is 
the only difference we know of. Calves should be fed 
new milk until at least two weeks old; then gradually 
substitute skim milk and corn meal, giving them a run 
on grass as soon as possible. Many of our patrons are 
feeding sour milk to both calves and pigs without serious 
difficulty. The main point is not to begin while the ani- 
mals are too young, nor overfeed at the start. 

Nissley. Yes, calves can be successfully raised on it, 
but a little oil meal will add to its value quite materially. 
I would prefer it sweet for calves and sour for pigs. 



FARMERS FRIEND 



215 



Jones. Calves can be successfully reared on separator 
milk, if combined with oil meal, shorts, or corn meal; 
otherwise it will disagree with them. There are more 
fattening properties in sweet than sour milk, for either 
pigs or calves. 

Eyth. For calves it is satisfactory, with the addition 
of alittle ground feed or oil cake, if always fed one way, 
either sour or sweet. For pigs always use soured, mixed 
with ground feed. Feed the milk sparingly until the pigs 
weigh about 100 pounds, when all they consume may be 
fed with safety. 

MILK FEVER. 

The Scottish papers say that milk fever, which yearly 
causes the death of so many of our best milk cows, is 
caused by taking all the milk from the cow's udder sopn 
after calving. The organs of the udder are necessarily 
somewhat inflamed at this period and when the warm 
milk is withdrawn there is great danger of these inflamed 
parts being chilled, thus bringing on fever. If this the- 
ory is correct, and it centainly seems reasonable, the 
prevention of milk fever is simply to be careful and not 
allow the calf to take more than one fourth of the milk 
from the udder at one time, until after the fourth or 
fifth day, when the inflammation has disappeared and all 
danger has past. If any part of the udder becomes un- 
usually distended the milk should be partially removed 
from that part. The treatment is simple enough, and 
farmers would do well to practice it; it can certainly do 
no harm. 

DEATH OF CATTLE FROM SMUT AND CORN STALKS. 

We hear of a great number, of losses of cattle from 
feeding in stalk fields. There is a great amount of smut 
in fields this year and it seems to be unusually poisonous. 
We believe this loss might all be avoided if proper pre- 
cautions were taken. The precautions we regard as 
essential are: 

First, in husking corn gather the smut and burn it. 



216 farmers' friend 



This can be done easily by hanging a basket behind the 
wagon and throwing the smutted ears into it. Second, 
do not allow cattle to be in a stalk field more than an 
hour 'the first day or two hours the second. Accustom them 
to it as you should to any new feed, gradually. Third, 
see that they have plenty of water and that they actually 
drink it. It is not enough to know that they can get 
water. They must actually drink it and plenty of it. If 
necessary, they should be salted heavily and the owner 
should see that the smaller and weaker ones drink. We 
used to have losses with smut and corn stalks, but found 
they were weak cattle that were driven away by the 
stronger ones and did not get water. 

Whether the disease is smut poisoning, and smut is 
simply the ergot of corn, or whether it is impaction of the 
stomach, causing dry murrain or mad itch, the best and 
readiest remedy is plenty of water. A small feed of 
oil cake would help matters when there is danger of im- 
paction, and would be in addition a very profitable addi- 
tion to the ration. 

THE BOY AND THE SCRUB. 

The farm boys of the Northwest must either drive the 
scrub from the farm or the scrub will drive them. In 
this day of schools and colleges the bright, energetic far- 
mer boy does not propose to content himself with caring 
for indifferent stock of all shapes and colors while the 
boy on the next farm cares for stock whose beautiful 
forms and handsome colors suggest thrift and profit. He 
wants to be like his neighbor and have something that 
will pay for the work and drudgery that belongs to every 
business. He don't feel like spending his time feeding 
good corn to cattle which at three years old weigh little 
over a thousand pounds and sell at the lowest price, while 
his neighbor boy feeds and cares for cattle which at two 
years old weigh 1200 and sell for the highest price. 

He wants an even chance or he will resolve to leave 
the farm and take an even chance in other walks of life. 
We have used this illustration to light up the general 



farmers' friend 217 



proposition that if tlie boy is to be kept on the farm that 
farm must be made attractive, and attractive not merely 
to a cultivated taste but a cultivated intellect; that the 
boy must have something to think al)out, something to 
study over, and we know of nothing that will better draw 
out what is best in the boy than fine young stock. We 
don't wonder that boys who are raised on farms where 
grain is the only crop raised become disgusted. Nor do 
we wonder that boys whose sense of beauty and love of 
thrift and progress is never gratified by the graceful 
forms of well bred animals either become disgusted with 
the scrub stock or settle down to scrub farmers. 

But what is scrub stock? Any and every kind of stock 
that does not pay a profit on the food it consumes. The 
Shorthorn man counts the Jersey or Holstein a scrub, but 
if they pay their wa}" and put money in the purse of their 
owner they are lovely in his eyes and ought to be. Scrub 
is that scrub does. Any kind of stock is liable to be- 
come scrubby in the hands of the scrub farmer. In fact, 
the animal forms in any country and on any farm are 
living testimonials to the kind and quality of the owner's 
brain. 

Now if the boy is to stay on the farm he must see 
profit in it, must find intellectual gratification in it, must 
find something in it worthy of the expenditure of force 
and energy; in short, something worth living for. Bear 
this in mind, then, that if you don't drive the scrub from 
the farm he will drive the bright boy from it. 

THE SCRUB MUST GO. 
(Western Plowman.) 

Good bye, old Brindle, bony scrub, 

The times .demand a better breed. 
You eat enough; but here's the rub, 

You never pay for half your feed. 
So after all those years we part, 

But pray remember as you go, 
If this should break your bovine heart. 

You broke my purse long, long ago. 



218 



FARMERS FRIEND 



I gaze at you with tearful eyes. 

Long-legged, ill-shaped, flabby Br'n, 
While years of fruitless labor rise 

And show ime what a fool I've been. 
The tons of wasted hay and feed 

In loud and injured tone the while, 
Complain you used them in your greed 

To simply swell the barnyard pile. 

With best of feed you're lank and thin, 

And I've grown thin through care of you, 
I've empty barn and empty bin — 

My pocket book is eijipty too. 
Well chosen was that famine sign 

In Pharaoh's dream; and yet, old cow. 
The seven thin ill-favored kine 

Told then of want no more than now. 

But grievous want shall disappear, 

If I the signs can rightly read. 
I'll fill my barns this very year 

With cows of some good dairy breed. 
I'll have the kind that's fat and sleek, 

The kind that brings prosperity; 
My purse shall fatten every week. 

And no more scrubs shall feed on me. 

, THE MARKETS. 




LIVESTOCK. 

There is a level headed farmer in every community 



FAR M E r; S FRIEND 



219 



who goes right along through all times and seasons and 
makes money — some money always. So can you. In- 
telligence and methods. Read up. Breed up. Feed up. 
There will always be blockheads enough to make intelli- 
gence pay. There will always be scrubs enough to make 
good breeds pay. There will always be slovens enougE 
engaged in the production of meat to make healthful and 
palatable meat pay. 

Upon the order of nature, there is not a farm product 
that cannot be produced and sold at a profit, if rightly 
raised. The profit may be small, but still above cost. 
Adapt your crops to your soil and to your market. Re- 
member that the profit is only in good crops. Fertilize 
your fields, practice economy, diversify your farming, 
do everything in season as well and fortune will surely 
attend you and a hungry world will always furnish a 
ready and remunerative market for your products. 

MARKET PRICES OF CATTLE. 

PRICES OF BEEVES IN CHICAGO. 

The price of beef cattle reached the highest point in 
1882, when, on the 1st of June, in Chicago. ''Extra 
beeves" sold at from $9.15 to $9.40 per cental of live 
weight, and "choice" were quoted at $8.65 to $8.90, On 
January 1, 1879, when the upward course of meat values 
began, the figures for the same grades were, respectively, 
$4.60 to $5.00 and $4.10 to $4.35. 

THE BEST MILCH COWS. 

If those who believe in the "general purpose cow" 
will consider the following description of the best milch 
cow which appeared originally in the (English) Agri- 
cultural Gazette, we think they can but admit that in many 
essential points it differs widely from that of the best 
beef animal. Either the description is at fault, or the 
ideas of those who think that beef and dairy qualities 
of a high order can be found in the same animal need 
considerable clearing up. 



2ZU FARMERS FRIEND 



The best milch cow is of medium size and small boued. 

The head is small and rather long, narrow between the 
horns, and wide between the eyes. The lips are long and 
thick, giving the muzzle a flat appearance. The ears 
are thin, covered with long but soft, silky hair, the in- 
side of the ear being of a rich orange color. The eyes 
are large and bright, with a placid expression, the horns 
set on a high pate, bending outward at the base, light, 
clear and smooth; the neck long, clean and thin, slender 
and well cut under the throat, thickening handsomely as 
it approaches the shoulder, but entirely free from any- 
thing like a "beefy" appearance. The shoulder blades 
should meet narrow at the top widening gradually 
towards the points, which should be broad and well 
rounded; the ribs rather straight and wide, indicating 
a good digestion and constitution, for everything depends 
on that in a good milch cow. The loins should be broad 
and the hips high and wide, the rump even with the 
hips; the pelvis wide, giving plenty of room for the 
udder; the thighs thin; the hind legs a little crooked, 
and small below the hock, with a long large foot., The 
udder should be long and broad with the teats all the 
same size and well set apart; the belly to sag a little in 
front of the udder, and rise slowly as it approaches 
the brisket, and somewhat large as compared with the 
size of the cow. The tail long and slim, tapering gently 
to the end. The hair must be soft, indicating a mellow 
skin, which on taking in the hand, feels like soft kid 
gloves, and no coarse rough hair will grow on such skin. 

The color of the skin should be of rich butter yellow. 
This is the first point in handling. Then, pass your 
hand on the belly in front of the udder and feel the "milk 
veins". They are an infallible mark of a good cow. 
The larger they are the better the indications. In extra 
good cows they branch out into four veins, but they all 
unite before reaching the udder. The more regular the 
courses the more sure you may be that the cow is a good 
milker. The udder should be covered with a short downy 
coat of hair. This hair should begin to turn its back- 
ward course from the front teats, then on the back part 



FARMERS' FRIEND 



221 



of the udder, called the escutcheon, aud on as far as the 
vulva, in the best cows. The wider the belt of this up- 
turned hair the better; it should be short and velvety, 
covering a short orange colored skin. 

SELECTING THE BULL. 

Many farmers look about them during the fall for the 
young bull desired for use next season. This grows in 
part out of the leisure the fall affords, and in part out 
of the fact that in the fall there is a pretty good stock 
of weanlings, and it is generally expected that a young 
bull can be bought cheaper in the fall than after he has 
been wintered, the buyer counting the expense to himself 
of wintering as of nominal consequence. The added ex- 
pense put on by the seller on account of having, in part 
or in whole, wintered the young animal, is a very uncer- 
tain sum and ordinarily amounts to but little. 

The principal advantage, however, in buying the young 
animal in the fall rests in the fact that in a collection of 
unculled young bulls, well weaned and well settled down 
to eating rations of grass, hay, and grain, there is ex- 
cellent opportunity for selecting. The buyer has the 
opportunity for suiting himself in the breeding; he can 
judge of the feeding and growing qualities, he can scru- 
tinize the parentage, and the young stock descended from 
the same strain or strains of blood; can have his choice 
as to age color, general make-up, and promise. 

It is not every one who can tell what shape a young 
bull at eight months will take on at eighteen months. 
Novices are likely to pay undue attention to unimportant 
points, for instance the horn, the head, and the color. The 
head never gets on the dinner-plate. The horn goes to 
the comb-maker, the hair to the mortar-bed. The neck 
is a fancy point with some, yet it is neither broiled nor 
roasted. Good feeding qualities, growing tendency, 
plenty of stamina, good breeding, with a wide-spread top 
from end to end. are the more important points which, 
together, make up a good bull. Buy with these things in 
view and you will not be disappointed. 



FARMERS FRIEND 





DON'T FORGET THE CALVES. 




i ""~* 


i^mymm^.j 


^ '^ ' ^ 'k^' ' '^'^*%"'^'' 


SOI 


0mi^^*'mf^^T 


-3 





We have elsewhere pleaded for the colts. We now 
plead for the calves. The man who steals from a calf 
steals from himself. He imagines that he is sharp and 
has made money, but it is money out of pocket never to 
return. It grieves us to see poor little calves all over the 
country, Sliorthorns that are trying to look like Jerseys, 
trying to get their bones and frames adapted to a miser- 
ably thin diet of skim milk and frosted grass, and grow- 
ing a long coat of hair to keep warm this winter all be- 
cause the owner thinks a calf is a calf and some fool will 
buy it anyhow and pay the same price that a good one 
should bring. They were knocked on the head with the 
churn dasher that the owner might make store butter to 
trade off to the stores at ten cents a pound, and which the 
merchant sells for five. They will be kept on scant fare 
this winter and some time next May they will come out 
alive and the hair will peel off and they will look like mini- 
ature bales of mildewed cotton, and at three years old go 
to Chicago to be sold to the canning factories to be ped- 
dled out to miners in the mountains. 

This ignoble use of a calf that is born for better things 
is the result of the penny wise and pound foolish policy 
of farmers who have never once asked themselves "Why 
do I raise calves'"? The farmer who did not feed his 
hogs all they wanted because he was afraid they would 
get fat before they had eaten up all his corn, was a wiser 
man; He at least gave his hogs the satisfaction of eating 
a good deal of corn and doing a good deal of squealing. 
If you raise a calf for beef then feed it. Raise a big beef 
that will bring a big price and will weigh well. The 
sooner you get the weight and the fat the more money 



farmers' FRIEND 223 



you will make. To feed a calf or anything else just to 
keep it alive is pure waste of the feed, the time, and the 
interest on the money. Feed given in this way simply 
converts grain into manure. The farmer will never get 
rich in this business. If you don't get the foundation, 
and get it this winter and send the calf out to pasture 
strong and healthy, you have and always will have an 
unprofitable steer. 



LUCK. 

There is no such thing as luck in this world. The idea 
is preposterous. The man who depends upon it will 
never amount to anything; will be a mere cypher. One 
might as well wait for the ocean to dry up and reveal its 
hidden treasures; fish to come ashore to be caught; gram 
to grow without planting or gold to come ready dug and 
coined. 

The men called the most lucky are those who never had 
even a distant idea of valuable things coming for the wish- 
ing — the men who are the istrongeist put their shoulders 
to the wheel, pulled the hardest against wind and tide, 
dug the deepest into the earth and fought the bravest 
against odds. 

Success is not luck — not in the least. It did not come 
by chance, but was the natural result of long and stren- 
uous effort. There was no waiting no idle hoping. The 
probabilities were seized and the possibilties worked out 
to the utmost fraction. While the foolish dreamers were 
idle the successful man was up and doing. He knew that 
doomsday would come as soon as luck. 

Belief in luck is the most senseless of superstitions. 
If the affairs of this world were dependent upon it, 
reasoning powers would never have been given; kn owl- 
edge wouldnot have been bestowed; the brainless faculties 
of beasts of the field would have been all sufficient. We 
would only have had to wait. Luck would have brought 
all we needed — that is to the fortunate — and for those 
cursed by "bad luck", there would have been no strug- 
gling against fate, and the sooner they bowed their mis- 



224 farmers' friend 



erable heads to the decree and quietly ended their exist- 
ence the better. 

The belief in luck makes man a "tramp", existing 
upon the bounty, and filching the honest and hard-won 
'Substance of others. The only luck he will ever find will 
be a home in the poor-house and a pauper's grave. The 
idea of luck is disproved by everything since creation, by 
creation itself. Luck did not bring order from chaos, 
and will never produce food and clothing, and honor and 
a fair name. It is all moonshine of the thinnest quality. 

Young man, all the luck you can find will be wrought 
out by brain and muscle^by effort and daring and un- 
bending will; by plunging into the stream; by climbing 
the mountain ; by " paddling your own canoe " ; by nerve ; 
by pushing ; by a brave front and heart ; by kicking hope 
out of doors; by resisting the temptation to sloth; by 
turning a deaf ear to idle dreams. Fools alone trust to 
any other means of acquiring reputation and fortune. 

Verily believers (and followers of their belief) in luck, 
will find themselves in the situation of Cowper's people: 

"Who spent their lives 
In dropp'ng buckets into empty wells, 
And growing tired of drawing nothing up.'' 

Some people call it luck to be spared damage and loss 
by accident or neglect or to suffer from these. The man 
who forgot to tie his horses when he left them in the 
stable at night, and consequently had a leg of one l)roken 
and the other badly cut up, or who lost a horse by colic 
from an overfeed of wet clover, or let a cow fall in an 
open cistern, or another get loose and gorge herself on 
meal in a bin with the cover left open, says he has had 
ill luck. This word luck is an old pagan heritage which 
should be obsolete, as belonging to the past age, when 
men believed the stars ruled their fortunes. 

"The fault * * * is not in our stars, 

But in ourselves that we are underlings." 

And so every unlucky accident which happens can be 
shown to be the result of some neglect or mistake or 




No. I. Berkshire Barrows. Winners International Grand Champions, 
Chicago, 1906. 




No. 2. Pure Bred Poland China Barrows. Age 15 months; weight 450 
lbs. Owned by University of Wisconsin. 




No. 3. Duroc Jerseys at the ends. Three Berkshires in middle. Average 
weight 296 lbs. Owned by University of Wisconsin. 




No I. Pure Bred Poland-China Barrow. Age 15 months; weight 475 
lbs. Owned hv Universitv of Wisconsin. 




No. 2. "Star Masterpiece". Age 22 months; weight 750 lbs. University 
of Wisconsin. 




No. 3. A Pure Bred Duroc Jersey Sow. Weight 400 lb^. University ot 
Wisconsin. January 31, 1907. 



FARMERS FRIEND 



avoidable fault. As the business of a farm is exceedingly 
intricate and varied, there is more risk of harm from false 
steps, but then the farmer knowing this, should be on his 
guard and make a study how to use precaution. 

Most all doors are marked and the door to success is 
marked like many others — Push and Pull. 



Miscellaneous Diseases of Hogs. 

HOG CHOLERA CANNOT BE CURED. 

The hog, like every other domestic animal, is liable to 
sickness. Some of the symptoms, of nearly every disease, 
of which the hog is liable, in some way resembles the 
cholera. 

United States Congress twenty-one years ago appro- 
priated one hundred thousand dollars for the purpose of 
making a thorough investigation of the swine plague. 
Some of the best veterinaries in the United States were 
employed. They went anywhere in the United States 
where they were notified that that section of the country 
was troubled with the cholera. In fully seventy-five per 
cent of the cases it was discovered that the hogs did not 
have the cholera, but some similar disease which by 
proper care and treatment, nearly the entire herds were 
saved. 

As soon as the farmer's hog gets sick he comes to the 
conclusion that the hog has the cholera. He reads of the 
cure that has just been discovered and hastens to pur- 
chase some of the so-called ''sure cure for hog cholera". 
It is true that many of the medicines cure the hogs, or at 
least does not kill them, and the hogs get well. The use 
of certain medicines internally, to act as preventives, is 
no doubt of some value. 

The alimentary canal is generally the first to be 
affected by the cholera. Any medicine strong enough to 
kill the bacteria which causes the cholera will kill the hog. 

In case any doubtful disease should get among your 



228 farmers' friend 



hogs you should always remove the well ones. It is quite 
a common thing for farmers to drive out the sick hogs 
and permit the well ones to remain to be attacked. 

Following are a number of diseases which are always 
called cholera : 

When people remember that we have no specifics for 
these diseases in the human family, it will be good com- 
mon sense not to expect it in the porcine family. If 
farmers will only learn the prevailing types and symp- 
toms of this disease and the proper remedies to be used 
during each, how and when to use them, and will follow 
it up according to directions, they will be successful. They 
must remember that it is necessary to commence at the 
first symptoms in the first cases, and keep up the fight 
till it is stamped out on the farm. If it is too much 
trouble, no further advice is necessary. We give below 
the symptoms of the various types of this disease, and 
the most successful methods of treating the same, which 
have been successful whenever faithfully tried. If the 
directions are carried out which have been given in this 
chapter, there need be no epidemic form of the disease. 
It can be controlled and wiped out, and never get beyond 
a few isolated cases. The treatment, as well as the 
hygenic advice, is from the pen of a celebrated govern- 
ment commissioner, appointed to investigate the causes 
and treatment of the disease, and has been very saccess- 
ful: 

PUTRm ERYSIPELAS MALIGNANT TYPHUS. 

This is one of the most frequent forms of anthrax. Its 
outbreak is preceded by dull, weak appearance, during 
which the hog refuses food There will be an unsteady 
walk, a lying down a good deal, rolling in the bedding, 
and showing a desire to bury his head, or even the whole 
body. The body will alternate with shivering fits and 
periods of feverish heat, in quick succession. Tlie pulse 
and breathing will be hastened, the bowels are consti- 
pated, or are voided in hard dark-colored lumps. In 
some cases the hog will attempt to vomit. In about ten to 
twenty-four hours the symptoms become more intensi- 



FABMEIIS' FEIEND 231 



fied; and spots which soon become confluent, or run to- 
gether, make their appearance on the inside of the legs, 
on the lower part of the abdomen, on the breast and neck, 
and soon present a swelling, which at first is crimson, 
afterwards purple, and if fatal, finally of bluish-black 
color. In some cases pustules of a corrosive and gan- 
grenous character make their appearance on some parts 
of the swelled surface; the fever increases in intensity; 
the mucous membranes present a lead-colored appear- 
ance; the breathing is labored; the temperature of the 
body much increased at first, is now, by collapse, greatly 
reduced; the hindquarters are paralyzed; convulsions 
commence; and the animal dies in from six to twelve 
hours, yet it usually does not terminate until the second 
or third day from its commencement. When recovery 
occurs it is in those cases where the red spots are limited 
or do not run together; when the fever is less; and the 
other symptoms abate about the second day. Partial 
paralysis may remain, with loss of appetite, so that it is 
difficult to get the animal to eat enough to sustain life. 
Perfect recovery is seldom, and there remains behind de- 
fective digestion, which prevents thriving and fattening. 

THE TREATMENT OF THIS FORM. 

The first step should be to give an emetic consisting of 
from five to twenty grains of white helebore in a little 
milk. If the hog will not drink, it may be mixed with a 
little flour and water in the form of a pill, and put well 
back on the tongue or in the throat. If the animal does 
not vomit freely in twenty minutes, repeat the dose. 
After the emetic has had is effect, administer to each 
hog:— 

Hyposulphite of Soda, half an ounce, 
Solution Carbolic Acid, ten drops, 
Tincture of Aconite, five drops. — Mix. 

Add enough of molasses to make a soft mass, and place 
well back in the throat. If the hog will eat, it may be 
given in a small amount of milk. For a number of hogs 
increase in proportion ; give to all at once in milk. This 



232 FARMERS ' FRIEND 



treatment should be commenced early in the disease, 
when it will be most successful, and should be repeated at 
least three times daily, or even every two hours. Injec- 
tions of warm soapsuds, to which half an ounce of turpen- 
tine has been added and ten drops of carbolic acid, may 
be given twice daily, and materially assist a cure. The 
external ulcerations, on the surface of the swellings, 
should be opened and bathed in warm water containing 
half a fluid ounce of carbolic acid solution to a pint of 
water. Muriate of ammonia in half drachm doses in a 
little molasses, is an excellent remedy in the latter stages 
of the disease when signs of a collapse are present. 

MALIGNANT PUTRID SORE THROAT. 

This is a frequent form of the disease, and is very fatal 
in its character. It is more local in its attack than the 
previous form, and affects the throat larynx, air pass- 
ages, etc. It may mainly affect the larynx, or it maybe more 
diffusive and involve the adjoining parts, even into the 
cavity of the chest, with great congestion of the lungs. 
The external swellings on the throat vary with different 
subjects, and the breathing is obstructed in proportion to 
the amount of congestion and its location. While its ex- 
tent may vary, yet it is the same type of the disease. 
The principal symptoms consist of wheezing and labor- 
ious breathing, hoarse grunting, hacking cough, great 
heat and dryness of the snout swelling of the tongue, 
brown-red color of the mucous membrane of the mouth, 
difficulty in swallowing food, with attempts to vomit, 
showing affection of the stomach. At the larynx and 
along the windpipe, even extending down between the 
fore legs, will be found a hot, hard, painful swelling, 
which at first presents a crimson appearance, which may 
change to a lead color, and finally to a dark purple. Tlie 
fever is usually very high, and the animals breathe with 
increasing difficulty, and either lie down or sit on their 
haunches like a dog. Finally the difficulty of breathing 
be€)omes so great that desperate attempts are made to 
catch the air by opening the mouth, during which the livid 
and swollen tongue is protruded. The mucous membrane 



farmers' FRIEND 233 



of the month is now lead-colored ; the temperatnre of the 
body has become lower than natural, and the hog may 
either die of strangulation, or gangrenous action inter- 
nally in the throat and lungs as well as external, in one 
or two days. In those cases where the attack is concen- 
trated in the larynx the patient suffocates sooner, and 
may choke up and die in an hour after the first appear- 
ance of the symptoms. If it does not terminate in death, 
which is the case if not attended with proper treatment 
early, the symptoms are reduced gradually, the swellings 
are absorbed, and the animal partially recovers. Often the 
later stages show those peculiar symptoms of oppressed 
breathing and heaving of the flanks, commonly called 
' ' thumps ' '. 

ITS TREATMENT. 

To be of any avail, the treatment must be begun at the 
very first symptoms shown. An emetic of ten to twenty 
grains of powdered white helebore may be given in a lit- 
tle milk, or mixed with a little flour and water, and placed 
on the roots of the tongue. If it does not vomit in twenty 
minutes, repeat the dose. After the emetic has had its 
effect, give the following, three times daily : — 

Hyposulphite of Soda, half an ounce. 
Muriate of Ammonia, half a drachm, 
Molasses to make a mass. 

Place on the tongue. Five drops of tincture of aconite 
dropped on the tongue during the early stages of the dis- 
ease when the fever is high, is of great assistance. In 
addition, the prescription below should be used in the 
manner prescribed. If it does not all go down the throat, 
it will do much good as a local remedy : — 

Chlorate of Potassa, three ounces, 

Solution of Carbolic Acid, half a fluid ounce, 

Water, one quart. — Mix. 

Give this every hour, or even every half-hour in bad 
cases, in tablespoonful doses, with a tablespoon. It is an 
excellent application for the inflamed and ulcerated 



!34 FAEMEES ' FREEXD 



throat, as well as a powerful antiseptic and refrigerant. 
As the hog gets better, the periods of administration can 
be lengthened, or chlorate of potash can ]>e given in his 
food. When this disease is present on a farm, the best 
preventive is twenty grains of chlorate of potash to each 
well hog. in a little milk, before feeding in the morning. 
An onnce will do for twenty-five hogs, and all be fed at 
once. It will frequently arrest the disease t^efore it is 
recognized, and is one of the best preventives known for 
this form. Ten drops of solution of carbolic aeid every 
other day. for each hog. assists its preventive power by 
destroying germs of the disease. It will have a better 
effect if the hogs are fasted some hours before, and not 
fed for some two hours after giving. 

TTPHOID EXTZBITIS IXFLAJ^MATIOX OF BOWELS. 

This form of the disease partakes somewhat of a 
typhoid character, regarding its internal results. Its 
locations are the bowels, the urinary organs, the mem- 
branes lining the abdominal cavity, as well as the nervous 
centers. All may be involved, or but one or two in the 
primary stages. When the peritoneum is involved, which 
is almost invariably the case, there will be costiveness, 
the passages being streaked with muous, which may be 
discolored. In the fatal stages of the attack, a fetid 
diarrhoea may succeed, which is the forerunner of death, 
The first symptoms are a short hacking cough in some 
instances, not so much obstruction in breathing as in the 
other forms. There will be an unsteady walk, with fully 
as high fever as is found in the other forms. If the urin- 
ary organs are affected, the animals will arch their backs 
in an extreme manner. The external extravasation in 
these cases is slight, and may be absent entirely. When 
the nerve centers are involved, paralysis will result. In- 
temaUy there are adhesions of the intestines, alteration 
in the kidneys, liver, etc., with effiision of al>dominal 
cavity. 

ITS TBEATMENT. 

In tMs form of the disease an emetic is of greater value 



FARMERS FRIEND 



235 



than in the preceding forms, and should be given in the 
manner indicated. When there is costiveness in the early 
stages, which is nearly always the ease, a purgative is 
needed, none being better than calomel, which may be 
given in doses of one scruple every six hours until it has 
its effect. It may be given in a little flour and water as a 
pill or in a little milk, if the hog will eat. Injections of 
warm soap-suds, to which half an ounce of solution of 
carbolic acid may be added, will aid its effects. During 
the early stages of the fever, drop five drops of tincture 
of aconite on the hog's tongue, every two hours. In ad- 
dition to this the following prescription should be given 
after the calomel has had its effect, or may be substituted 
for it in the early stages : — 

Hj-posulphite of Soda, one-half ounce. 
Chlorate of Potassa, one scruple. 
Molasses to make a mass. — Mix. 

CONTENTS OF CHAPTER. 

Diseases of Throat and Lungs. — Quinsy or Strangles, 
sometimes called Hog Cholera. — ^Diphtheria, which is 
also Epizootic. — Pneumonia or Inflammation of the 
Lungs. — Cough. — Catarrh in Pigs. — Sniffles. — Their 
causes, symptoms and treatment. 

Diseases of the Somach, Bowels, Etc. — Diarrhoea or 
Scours in Pigs. — Constipation in Hogs. — Kidney 
Worms and Intestinal Worms. — Piles in Hogs. — 
Protrusion of Rectum or Bowel in Pigs. 

Miscellaneous Diseases. — Paralysis of Hindquarters. — 
Apoplexy in Fat Hogs. — Thumps or Palpitation of 
Heart. — Blind Staggers. — Scrofulous Disease. — 
Rheumatism. — Black Tooth. — Lice on Hogs. — Mange 
on Pigs. — To Prevent Sows Eating Their Pigs. 

Operations. — Spaying Sows. — Altering Ridgling Boars. 
— Castrating Ruptured Hogs. — Prevention of Being 
Flv-BIown. 



DISEASES OF THROAT AND LUNGS. 

quinsy strangles HOG CHOLERA. 

This disease sometimes assumes an epidemic form sim- 



23(3 farmers' friend 



ilar to distemper in young horses, and proves fatal to 
large numbers of young pigs as well as older hogs. We 
have known it to assume so fatal a form as to be called 
*'hog cholera" by those ignorant of its distinguishing 
type, yet it differs from anthrax diseases in not being so 
malignant, and in other respects. 

Give three times daily, using the aconite as directed, 
between the doses. Half a drachm of muriate of ammonia 
may be given at a dose if symptoms of failing strength 
are present. Mashes and sloppy food, not soured or fer- 
mented, should be given. AH remedies will have better 
and more immediate effect by fasting the hogs twelve 
hours previous. 

The first symptoms are swelling of the glands under 
the jaw, followed by rapid and oppressed breathing, and 
difficulty in swallowing. In the more advanced stages the 
neck is badly swollen, the tongue protrudes and death is 
caused by strangulation. Often the swelling takes the gan- 
grenous form and becomes allied to anthrax. Quinsy is 
caused by exposure to sudden changes of atmosphere, and 
if the animal has been under the debilitating influence of 
bad food, impure water or filthy enclosures, mortification 
frequently sets in, and death results in a few hours. Al- 
lowing hogs to pile up around old sraw stacks, during 
cold nights, is a pre-disposing cause. Any one who has 
seen hogs routed out in the morning, and observed how 
those underneath smoke and steam as they come forth 
and the cold air strikes them, must realize that such sud- 
den changes produce inflammation of the lungs, quinsy, 
diphtheria, etc., of a fatal type, resulting in the popular 
"hog cholera". 

Young pigs are very liable to be attacked with quinsy. 
They should be kept in warm, clean, well-ventilated pens, 
with plenty of clean straw; let them have a mess of thin 
gruel three times a day, into which stir one-half ounce 
of chlorate of potash. If the bowels are constipated, 
from one to two ounces of castor oil may be given each 
pig. In bad cases the throat may be lubricated with equal 
parts of cod-liver oil and turpentine. 

In older hogs, also in pigs, benefit may be had by giving 
each hog an emetic consisting of four grains of tartar 



farmers' friend 237 



emetic, six grains of ipecacuanah and six grains of white 
helebore ; half this dose for young pigs. Often a deep in- 
cision into each tumor, on each side, will relieve it. Not 
a mere puncture with the knife, but a cut two to four 
inches long, and deep enough to reach the seat of the dis- 
ease. Feed thin gruel for a few days, in which a tea- 
spoonful of turpentine may be incorporated. Three to 
four drops of tincture of aconite dropped on the tongue 
every two hours is excellent in the early stages of the 
disease. 

DIPHTHERIA. 

This disease is far more prevalent than most people 
imagine who class all epidemics or contagious diseases 
under ''hog cholera". It not only attacks pigs, but older 
hogs. It is, in a certain degree, contagious, that is, by 
contact with the shreds of the false membrane coughed 
up by those attacked, well hogs will take the disease as 
readily as it is communicated by the human family. It 
sometimes takes an epidemic form in localities owing to 
atmospheric causes, local condition of filthy pens, and 
wet pastures during inclement seasons of the year. Its 
symptoms are sudden illness, with a dull appearance and 
loss of appetite. There will be extreme weakness, fever- 
ishness, stiffness of back and loins, a crouching walk with 
raised head. The mouth will be dry and open, a hoarse 
nasal grunt, livid tongue and difficulty in breathing. On 
examination internally, the throat will be red and swollen, 
and covered with grayish-white patches of false mem- 
brane, which increase, involving all the air passages and 
threaten suffocation. Shreds of false membrane are 
coughed up during paroxysms of coughing. The animal 
will lie down, sit on its haunches, or lean against the 
fence during these attacks of coughing, and will generally 
perish in one. 

The treatment, to be successful, must be begun early 
in the disease. If the drove is ranging in cold, wet pas- 
tures, they must be changed into dry yards and sheltered 
pens, and the well separated from the sick. Give each of 
the well hogs a spoonful of chlorate of potash daily in a 
small quantity of milk. The whole amount can be given 



238 farmers' friend 



at once by proportioning it to the number of liogs. This 
will prevent its spread and arrest its incipient stages. 
The sick must have local as well as constitutional treat- 
ment. In the first place give the following to each hog, 
daily : — 

Sulphite of Soda, two drachms, 
Powdered Castor Bean, one drachm, 
Solution Carbolic Acid, five drops. — ^Mix. 

Give in swill to those which will eat, increasing the 
amount proportionate to the number of hogs. To those 
which cannot eat, it may be given by mixing with 
molasses and smearing on the back of the tongue. To 
remove the patches of false membrane and prevent 
further formation, prepare a small swab of sheep-skin 
with the wool on, and a flexible stick, well secured, and 
diiDping it in the following solution, swab out the throat 
twice daily :^ 

Chlorate of Potassa, one ounce. 

Solution of Carbolic Acid, two fluid drachms, 

Water, one quart. — 'Mix. 

Its virtues can be materially aided by sprinkling the 
swab with flour of suphur before inserting into the throat. 
We have never known it to fail. Warm, sloppy food may 
be given, to which chlorate of potash may be added in 
teaspoonful doses. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

This disease is always caused by sudden changes, ex- 
posure to storms, piling of hogs during cold nights, etc. 
The pig, or hog, is taken with shivering fits, is dumpish, 
is drawn up in a heap, as it were, loss of appetite, hurried 
and short breathing generally accompanied with a cough, 
which is deep and hoarse. It is an inflammation of the 
cellular portion of the lungs. If the bowels are consti- 
pated, loosen by injections of warm soap suds. At the 
same time give, according to size, a half to two draclims 
of saltpetre, and one to three ounces of Glauber's salt. 



farmers' friend 239 



After six hours, and then thrice daily, <one powder of the 
following composition should be thrown on the tongue, 



Tartar Emetic, twelve grains. 
Powdered Opium, twelve grains. 
Saltpeter, one ounce a half, 
Mix, and divide into eight powders. 

When the inflammatory symptoms have abated, half 
drachm doses of sal-ammoniac thrice daily for several 
days, are ver}^ beneficial. The patient should be separated 
from the rest of the herd, and given a warm sheltered 
pen, plenty of litter, water and slops which have been 
warmed, consisting of gruel, sour milk, etc. It is better 
to so manage your hogs as not to have to treat it, as 
prevention is far easier than the cure; yet it is often "too 
much trouble ' '. 

COUGH. 

This is sometimes a symptom, and sometimes a local 
irritation. It is a premonitory symptom of one form of 
"hog cholera", which is really pleuro-pneumonia, and 
from its character and obstruction of the lungs in its later 
stages, is called "Thumps". This is especially the case 
when dropsy ^of the chest has resulted. Wlien there is 
costiveness, it must be removed by two to three drachms 
of powdered castor bean mixed with molasses and 
smeared on the back of the tongue. One very successful 
breeder puts a ball of tar on the end of a paddle and 
places it well down their throat, for four successive morn- 
ings. Or, one grain of tartar emetic mixed with a small 
quantity of molasses, and smeared on the roots of the 
tongue, is an excellent remedy, which should be given 
every day for three or four days. Small quantities of 
swill, to which has been added a teaspoonful of chlorate 
of potash, may be given daily. 

CATARRH SNIFFLE DISEASE IN PIGS. 

This is a lymphatic-catarrhal affection which always 
takes on a chronic character. It develops slowly, and is 



240 farmers' friend 



generally not noticed before the disease is considerably 
advanced. It begins with an inflammation of the mucous 
membrane lining the passages of the nose, which, to- 
gether with adjacent parts, become more or less swollen. 
In course of time, dirorganization of the cartilaginous 
and bony structure of the. nose takes place, and by de- 
grees that organ becomes malshaped, and is generally 
drawn to one side. As the disease farther advances, 
appetite diminishes, and even on the best keep the ani- 
mals become poor and emaciated, and a hectic fever or 
general consumption often ends their existence. This 
so-called sniffle disease is not frequently met with. It is 
supposed to be hereditary; at all events of a scrofulous 
nature. By way of treatment, the animals should be kept 
comfortable, on dry litter. Diet should consist of milk, 
boiled food, oatmeal gruel, boiled barley, mashed fruit, 
cabbage, etc., in short, food which does not require hard 
chewing. If bowels are constipated, give occasionally 
half an ounce of Glauber salts and a drachm of saltpetre 
mixed with some honey or treacle, and smeared well back 
on the tongue. Give, every other week, thrice daily, the 
following dose to each pig : — 

Sal Ammoniac, half a drachm, 
Camphor, eight grains, 
Mix with a little treacle 

and smear on the tongue. If swelling of the nose should 
appear, and the same be painful, it may be bathed daily 
with a solution of one part of Goulard's extract, and ten 
parts of soft water. Wlien the disease is advanced, any 
treatment will prove unsatisfactory. 



DISEASES OF STOMACH AND BOWELS. 

DIARRHOEA — SCOURS IN PIGS. 

Many thousands of young pigs die yearly from this dis- 
ease, yet it may not take an epidemic form. There is 
hardly a farmer who escapes loss of this kind. It may 



FARxMEES' FRIEND 241 



attack merely one or two out of a litter, and seem to be 
isolated cases of derangement of digestion, or it may 
attack a whole litter when one or two days old. Few peo- 
ple understand that this latter form is invariably caused 
either by what the sow has eaten, or by the method of 
feeding, altering the character of her milk, and thus af- 
fecting the pigs. Too much green clover, or any other 
green food, will do it; also strictly feeding dry corn, or 
musty, decayed food, will produce it. While the food 
given the sow may thus affect the pigs, she will appar- 
ently suffer no constitutional disturbance and be as well 
as ever. 

Often a teaspoonful of sulphur administered to the sow 
in a little milk, twice each day, between the times of 
feeding, will produce a cure combined with care in feed- 
ing, and nothing be given to the pigs. If necessary to 
give the pigs remedies, there is nothing better than two 
or three drops of laudanum each, in a little sweet cream, 
administered with a teaspoon, twice daily. Change the 
food of the mother and see that it is of good quality. 
Keep the pigs in a warm, close pen, with plenty of litter, 
and do not allow them to run at large, but rest as mucli 
as possible. All the discharges must be scrupulously 
cleaned out of the pen, and the places covered with fresh 
earth as a disinfectant. Scald out the troughs and feed- 
ing places with boiling water to which ashes or lye has 
been added. If these precautions are taken it will dis- 
appear. If the pigs will eat, a few drops of the solution 
of carbolic acid may be added to the food of each pig. 

ANOTHET REMEDY OFTEN GIVEN. 

It is frequently the case that young pigs are troubled 
with scouring — or diarrhoea. This may be very speedily 
relieved by giving the sow a dose or two of Glauber or 
Epsom salts. The medicine — about one-half a teacupful — 
may be dissolved in warm water and fed to the sow in 
milk or any kind of swill she is in the habit of eating. 
This remedy never fails. 

CONSTIPATION. 

It is never best to allow either stock or fattening hogs 
to become constipated. It denotes a feverish condition 



242 



FARMERS FRIEND 



of the system, which easily becomes the first stage of 
some inflammatory disorder. The food should be so 
varied, without the use of remedies, as to prevent it. Green 
food is the best, or some milk or swill, to which may be 
added two ounces of Epsom salts for each hog, if the 
trouble is present. Often a cough is heard which will dis- 
appear when costiveness is removed. Stock hogs which 
have been running loose all summer often become seri- 
ously troubled in this way, if they are confined, and fed 
on dry, hard corn, preparatory for m^arket. 

KIDNEY WORMS. 

Kidney worm is not of so common occurrence as people 
seem to believe. The presence of the worms in the spinal 
canal, or in the spinal marrow, may produce paralysis of 
the hind quarters, in which case the animal would not ex- 
hibit any such marked tenderness, on being pressed over 
the loins with the fingers as he would if the weakness of 
the hind quarters was due to a sprain or to rheumatism 
of the loins. Occasionally hogs may suffer from the 
presence of one or more worms in the kidneys; but tke 
ailment is rarely fatal, and becomes so only after a long 
time of suffering and consequent disease and degenera- 
tion of one or both kidneys; it is next to impossible to 
diagnose the presence of worms in the kidneys of hogs, 
except by chance through microscopic examination of the 
urine. If worms are found in the kidneys of a hog that 
has either been slaughtered for food or died from some 
disease, it may then be supposed that others of the same 
herd, "not acting right", are infected with worms of the 
same species. In such cases, treatment (which is, at best, 
of questionable utility) may be instituted, and Fowler's 
solution of arsenic may be given in doses of a teaspoonful, 
morning and evening, during every other week for some 
time, to each hog. The loins also may be rubbed with 
spirits of turpentine every other day, and during the week 
when the solution of arsenic is suspended, a teaspoonful 
may be given every other day in its swill. 

INTESTINAL WORMS. 

When swine are infested with intestinal parasites they 
generally become unthrifty, will not fatten, and have 



farmers' FRIEND 243 



voracious appetites. They cough, scour, start from rest 
or sleep with a sharp cry, screaua excessively before feed- 
ing time as though they were nearly starved, vomit, and 
pigs sometimes have choking fits from knotting of worms 
in the throat. 

SURE CURE FOR WORMS IN HOGS. 

To every three gallons of water take one full teaspoon 
of lye. In this solution place one gallon of shelled corn 
and allow the same to remain there at least twelve hours. 

Pour off the liquid and after the corn has become 
thoroughly drained place on small piles and you will have 
no trouble in getting the hogs to eat the corn. If fed in 
water the lye bites the nose and some of the hogs will re- 
fuse to eat. 

The amount of corn stated above would be sufficient for 
only a few hogs. It is necessary to repeat this dose every 
three days for fifteen days. 

It is not an uncommon thing for farmers to complain 
that their fall shoats or winter pigs do not do well, if they 
would give them a few doses of the above remedy their 
hogs would fatten much better. 

The average worm medicine sells from seventy-five 
cents to one dollar per pound and some farmers buy from 
two to five pounds per year. Tlie above remedy is safe, 
sure and cheap. 

PILES IN PIGS. 

Piles may appear in hogs as well as in other animals ; 
but unless the knots are visible externally, they are sel- 
dom discovered in this animal before the disorder has so 
far advanced that blood passes off with the excrements, 
or the hair around the anus is blood-stained. The dis- 
ease is generally considered incurable in animals, in so 
far as treatment can only be of temporary benefit, on ac- 
count of the impossibility of enforcing the necessary 
hygenic rules and restrictions. Enlargements of the 
veins will appear again from the least cause. Moreover, 
the disease is of no dangerous consequence when not con- 



244 farmers' friend 



nectedwith any very material alterations, or attended with 
considerable general changes. Curative treatment consists 
in an entire change of food. Sour-milk, and especially 
light digestible substances, and, with a view of relaxing 
the existing state of costiveness, injections of vinegar and 
water, or, when considerable i^ain exists, of oily sub- 
stances, and the internal administration of castor oil, or 
sulphur with cream of tartar. In case of prolapsus of the 
bowels, caused by piles, warm fomentations of decoctions 
of white oak bark, previous to replacing the gut, will be 
of service, and, should the presence of large piles prevent 
replacing, these should be injected by the use of a hypo- 
dermic syringe, with a mixture of equal parts of carbolic 
acid crystals and olive oil. If the anus appears very 
much swollen, applications of oily or greasy substances 
would be beneficial in relieving pain and irritations. 
Laudanum may be added which will relieve the pain 
earlier. 

PROTRUSION OF BOWELS IN PiGS. 

Tills trouble is often caused by continued diarrhoea in 
pigs with a lack of tone in the parts, in fact, debility. In 
the first place, wash the part with warm water, then apply 
a solution of sugar of lead and water, a drachm of lead 
to a pint of water, to which may be added a little laud- 
anum, and gently press the part back, pushing up the 
finger a short distance. Three to five drops of laudanum 
may be given each sucking pig. 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. 

PARALYSIS OF HINDQUARTERS. 

This affects both young pigs and older hogs. Some 
think it is caused by worms in the kidneys. This is not 
always the case. It is true that the presence of these 
parasites around the kndneys may cause irritation, of the 
nerves of the spinal column and result in paralysis, yet 



FARMERS ' FRIEND 245 



it more often is a weakness and loss of nervous power in 
these parts. The symptoms in either case, for they can- 
not be distinguished apart, are weakness of the back, 
wriggle of the hind parts, and finally they set down on 
their haunches ; after some effort they get up, and run in 
a straight line quite fast, but swing to one side for a 
while, and then go over to the other side, and finally, get 
down so that they cannot rise, but can drag themselves 
about. The appetite is good until a day or two before 
they die. 

There is no better remedy for constitutional treatment 
than nux vomica, or its alkaloid, strychnine. Apply over 
the loins a liniment composed of one part of cantharides, 
two parts of olive oil, and two parts of oil of turpentine. 
Internal treatment should begin with a laxative consist- 
ing of three- drachms of powdered castor oil seeds, and 
eight ounces of rye flour, mixed in a quart of sour milk, 
or thin gruel, and let the animal drink it first thing in the 
morning. It may be repeated once a week. Half of the 
dose will suffice for young pigs. The following internal 
treatment may be repeated twice or thrice daily : — 

Powdered Nux Vomica, four grains, 
Powdered Anise Seed, half a drachm, 
Powdered Ginger, half a drachm, 
Mix with a little treacle 

and smear the dose well back on the tongue. Half this 
dose for pigs under three months old. Feed sloppy or 
steamed food, and give plenty of sour milk and fruit. 
Treatment of all such cases requires considerable pa- 
tience and perseverance, and recovery is slow and often 
uncertain. 

APOPLEXY. . 

Fat hogs are liable to attacks of this disease if they are 
heavily fed by a forcing method, especially in warm 
weather. They appear dumpish and out of sorts for a 
few hours previous to an attack, and drop as if shot, hav- 
ing all the appearance of death, with the exception of 
heavy breathing. The quickest method to bring back 



246 farmers' friend 



sensibility is to bleed. By tying a cord around the fore 
leg above the foot, the artery will be seen to fill above 
the knee, on the inside of the leg, and can be opened with 
a sharp knife. A pint to a quart of blood should be taken. 
If the hog revives, as soon as possible give something to 
move the bowels, either by injection, or by mouth, or both. 
Light food only should be given for some days thereafter. 

THUMPS PALPITATION OF HEART. 

There is a common error prevalent, that the short, 
thumpy cough at the commencement of inflammation of 
the lungs is thumps. True "thumps", which is but the 
vulgar name for palpitation of the heart, is more of a 
nervous character, and is, in fact, a sign of debility and 
nervous derangement. This will be seen by the paroxysm 
being easily brought on by anything startling the animal. 
Its treatment is careful feeding on slops, a separation 
from the rest of the drove, and from two to ten grains of 
digitalis given twice daily in a little molasses, which can 
be smeared on the roots of the tongue with a paddle. 

BLIND STAGGERS. 

The attack is generally preceded by dullness for a day 
or so, with apparent tendency of blood to the head, which 
will be shown by inflamed eyes. The bowels are consti- 
pated, and the pulse hard and quick. If not relieved dur- 
ing this stage of the attack, the animal runs wildly about, 
generally in a circle, appears blind, will run against ob- 
jects, breathing laboriously, and often dies during one of 
these fits. Often it is caused by indigestible food; feed- 
ing young pigs on dry corn, when they should have a 
mixed and sloppy diet. It is more often caused by a fit 
of indigestion, combined with costiveness, and can be re- 
lieved by getting the bowels to acting freely, early in the 
disease, by injection of warm soapsuds, accompanied with 
three drachms of pulverized castor bean, mixed with 
molasses and smeared on back of the tongue. Or, a tea- 
spoonful of calomel may be substituted. Cold water 
should be frequently dashed on the head, while along the 




No. I. Prize Winning Sheep. State Agricultural College of Iowa. 
Pure Bred Shropshire. 




No. 2. Ram "Paragon Star" 149890. University of Wisconsin. 



Ithi 


■ 




11 










^ It*-:,:. 



No. I. Clear Lake Jute, Grand Champion Steer International Live Stock 
Show, 1904. Owned by Minnesota Agricultural College. 




No. 3. Pure Bred Southdown Lamb. International Prize Winner, 1904. 



FARMERS ' FRIEND 249 



spine may be applied turpentine or kerosene oil well rub- 
bed in. Sulphite of soda may be added to the injection, 
and will materially add to its rapidity, and turpentine in 
small quantities added to the injections will have a stimu- 
lating as well as local effect. 

SCROFULOUS DISEASES. 

This is shown in young pigs by weakness of the joints, 
knuckling over, and reeling when walking. There seems 
to be a softening of the bones, or rather, the assimilation 
of the constituent part of the bones is deficient. Ulcera- 
tion may take place externally, near the joints, diarrhoea 
may be present, and in young animals the navel string 
may remain Dpen, through which urine will dribble. In 
older subjects it may take the form of tuberculous con- 
sumption. The lungs becoming diseased, and the liver 
full of tuberculous lumps. As the prevention of an evil 
is general^ considered cheaper and more certain in its 
effects than an attempt at cure, it is evident that, in a 
disease of this kind, that is practically incurable, the 
cheaper and safer plan would be to discontinue breeding 
from stock thus affected. The treatment of scrofulous 
disease in the hog, as well as other domestic animals, 
when in an advanced state, is generally unsatisfactory. 



Sheep Department. 



GENERAL DISEASES. 

GRUB IN THE HEAD. 



The gad-fly of the sheep deposits its eggs in the nostrils 
of the sheep in the months of July and August, and these 
being immediately hatched by the warmth" and moisture, 
the larvae or young grubs crawl up into the cavities of the 
head, and, attach themselves to the membraneous linings. 



250 farmers' friend 



They remain there until the ensuing spring, when they 
become thick, plump grubs, more than an inch long. They 
then descend from the head, drop on the ground, burrow 
into it, take the form of a chrysalis, and at the proper 
time again hatch forth gad-flies. Their effect on the sheep 
is a matter of considerable dispute, some eminent veteri- 
nary writers considering them entirely harmless. Others, 
and a much greater number, believe that the irritation 
they occasion produces disease and death. If the sheep be- 
gin to fall off in condition a little before spring,though 
previously in good flesh, and their feed kept fully up ; if 
they wander round with movements indicative of pain in 
the head, and discharge mucus, tinged with blood, from 
the nose, though oppressed with no catarrhal difficulty, it 
may be suspected that they are suffering under the effects 
of grub in the head. Some persons have blown tobacco 
smoke up their nostrils from the tail of a pipe, the bowl 
being covered with a cloth, with asserted good effect. 
Others have injected tobacco water with a syringe, but 
this must be prevented from entering the throat in any 
considerable quantity. The best method is to prevent the 
fly depositing the eggs by smearing the nose around the 
nostrils during the above months with tar, to which some 
coal tar has been added. There has been some dispute 
whether the fly laid eggs or the already hatched maggot. 
We have been assured by several intelligent sheep- 
growers in the West, that all the female flies that they 
had examined contained not eggs, but living larv?e. 

We think that these apparently contradictory state- 
ments may be easily reconciled. Many flesh-flies, or blow- 
flies, as they are commonly called, if they cannot find any 
suitable seat or carrion of any kind to lay their eggs on, 
retain those eggs so long in their bodies that they actu- 
ally hatch them out into living larvse, as we have our- 
selves repeatedly remarked. Yet the normal habit of 
these same flies is to lay eggs. In the same way we con- 
ceive that the normal habit of the sheep bot-fly is to lay 
eggs, and that it is only when she cannot find any sheep 
at all to prey on, or when, by any means, she is prevented 
from reaching their nostrils, that the eggs hatch out pre- 



farmers' FRIEND 251 



maturely inside her body, and are sometimes deposited 
afterwards in the form of living larv?e, or maggots, in the 
nostrils of any unfortunate sheep that she can come 
across. 

REMEDY. 

The best preventive is a little coal tar on the sheep's 
nostrils. The maggots of the flesh-fly are infinitely more 
troublesome and dangerous to sheep in sultry and moist 
weather. When the weather is warm the fly deposits its 
eggs on wet or dirty parts of the wool, and the ova are 
soon hatched when the maggots immediately begin to bur- 
row into the skin of the sheep, and if left to work their 
will for any length of time, they will actually eat the 
"sheep alive. Dipping with M'DougaH's sheep dip is the 
best preventive. A good dressing for destroying the 
maggots is a combination of one part of oil of turpentine 
to three parts of sweet oil. Various decoctions are sold 
for the same purpose, most of which also profess to be 
preventives if applied to keep the fly from depositing its 
eggs in the wool. 

BLIND STAGGERS STURDY. 

The disease called blind staggers, is the uncommon 
affection called sturdy, or turnsick, which disease is 
caused by the pressure in the brain of a cerebral hydatid, 
and which, in its developed state, consists of a bladder 
provided with a variable number of heads. The variety 
of ways in which this disease manifests itself, has caused 
it occasionally to be confounded with other diseases — 
with attacks of the sheep-bot, with functional disorders 
of the brain, or with blind staggers. The disease is 
caused by the sheep picking from the pasture the ova or 
larvsB of the tapeworms dropped from dogs, foxes, rab- 
bits, etc. Sturdy rarely affects sheep above two years of 
age. It will be found to prevail on farms with open pas- 
tures, where dogs are employed to guard the flocks, or 
where sheep are confined within limited space, with one 
or more dogs amongst them. These are the conditions 



252 farmers' friend 



favorable to the development of sturdy, and they are 
those favorable to the dissemination of tapeworm eggs 
hv dogs, and the penetration of eggs in the bodies of 
sheep. Sturdy generally terminates fatally, owing to the 
circumstances that the cause of the disease — the para- 
site — ^cannot be destroyed or expelled by any remedy 
administered internally. The natural method of relief, 
which is by the absorption of the bones of the skull and 
evacuation of the hydatid, is very rare. Death invariably 
ensues when the parasite is encysted and developed in the 
center of the brain. Usually but one hydatid is found 
within the skull, and if that one should happen to be lo- 
cated at the surface of the brain, the bones of the skull, 
through absorption, gradually become thinner as the hy- 
datid develops, and on examining the head, a soft place 
may often be detected, which indicates that the fellow lies 
underneath. After a portion of the skin has been laid 
back, and the place carefully opened, the liquid from with- 
in the cyst may be extracted by a small syringe, a few 
drops of tincture of myrrh or tincture of aloes injected, 
and the opening covered by replacing the skin and sewing 
up the wound. If the bladder can be seized and drawn out, 
so much the better, and no injection is then necessary. 
The wound heals readily, and the animal may thus be 
saved — that is, if the case has been timely and properly 
attended to. 

DIARRHOEA. 

Common diarrhoea, or scours, not attended with consti- 
tutional disease, generally requires no remedies. If pro- 
tracted, two or three days' confinement to dry food, or an 
ounce of prepared chalk given in half a pint of tepid milk, 
will usually put a stop to it. If the purging is severe, or 
accompanied by mucus slime, a gentle cathartic of an 
ounce of Epsom salts or oil should be administered to a 
sheep, and half as much to a lamb six months old, and 
this be followed up by the dose of chalk and milk above 
recommended, once a day for two or three days. But 
"sheep's cordial" is a better remedy than the chalk, and 
may be kept on hand by every farmer. It is composed of 



FARMERS' FRIEND 



253 



the following ingredients: Prepared chalk, one ounce; 
powdered catechu, half an ounce ; powdered ginger, two 
drachms ; and powdered opium, half a drachm. Mix them 
with half a pint of peppermint water, and give two or 
three tablespoonfuls morning and night to a grown sheep, 
and half as much to a lamb. 

DYSENTERY. 

This differs from diarrhoea in various observable par- 
ticulars. It is attended by fever ; the appetite is irregu- 
lar and generally poor ; the evacuations are as thin as, or 
thinner than, in diarrhoea, but they are slimy, sticky and 
very offensive in smell. As the disease progresses, they 
become tinged with blood, and the animal rapidly wastes 
away. It sometimes dies in a few days, and sometimes 
lingers along for several weeks. This is treated much like 
severe diarrhoea, only many persons give two cathartics, 
instead of one, at the beginning. The English practition- 
ers also bleed, if the malady is detected in' its very first 
stage ; but if debility has ensued, it prostrates the system 
too much. Tlie ''sheep's cordial" requires to be given 
longer, and after a short period tonics are added — more 
ginger and from one to two drachms of gentian daily. 
This last is an admirable tonic. In place of the above 
remedies, some American farmers give a teaspoonful of 
laudanum and a tablespoonful of gin or rum, mixed and 
put in a little diluted fluid. 

COLIC OR STRETCHES. 

This is occasioned by confinement to dry food. During 
the paroxysms the sheep stretches itself incessantly, and 
exhibits much pain. A cathartic of one ounce of Epsom 
salts or castor oil will usually effect a cure. A drachm of 
ginger and a teaspoonful of the essence of peppermint, 
put in warm water with salts, adds to their efficacy. 
Half of the above dose for lambs. Green feed, even if 
given only once or twice a week, prevents this malady. 

CATARRH. 

This is common in winter among unsheltered sheep, or 
those that are wintered in small, close, unventilated 
stables. In its simple form it is not dangerous, unless its 



:54 farmers' friend 



exciting causes are continued; but frequent colds, ren- 
dered chronic by mismanagement, impair the condition of 
sheep, and eventually lead to low forms of fever, wasting 
and death. An epizootic catarrh, like influenza in un- 
usually changeable winters among human beings, occa- 
sionally rages with great violence over extensive regions, 
producing wide-spread destruction in our American 
flocks. The best course is to prevent the disease by 
proper management. Hardy sheep, in good condition, 
need not, with reasonable precaution, be exposed to tak- 
ing cold, and if any number of them chance to do so, cer- 
tainly the neglect causing it need not be repeated. For 
simple cold it is not common to do anything, though some 
careful farmers administer a tablespoonful of tar, and 
smear a little on their nose. 

SORE FACE AND LIPS. 

Sheep's faces occasionally become quite sore when 
they are at pasture in summer. It is attributed to the 
effect of St. John's wort, and to some other. It can be 
easily cured by the application of sulphur ointment, con- 
sisting of sulphur and lard. Swelled and sore lips more 
frequently appear about the opening of winter, and the 
causes are unknown. Sulphur ointment, mixed with a 
little tar, is a very efficacious remedy. 

OPHTHALMIA. 

This disease is characterized by redness of eyes, in- 
tolerance of light, and constant flow of tears. Bathe the 
eyes occasionally with warm water, to which a little sul- 
phate of zink has been added — ^a drachm to a quart of 
water. A teaspoonful of laudanum may also be added 
with much benefit, 

MODE OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES TO SHEEP. 

Sheep medicines administered internally should be in 
a fluid form, for otherwise they fall into the rumen or 
paunch, where they do not produce so much effect. Even 



farmers' friend 'loo 



fluids should be poured into the thoat with care and delib- 
eration, or they are likely to take the same course. It 
is common, as in the case of the horse, to give sheep med- 
icine through a horn. Some persons fasten their mouths 
open by means of a bit of three-quarter-inch board, about 
two and a half inches wide by four inches long, with an 
inch and a half hole through its center, and a strap at- 
tached to each end. This piece of wood is placed 
in the mouth so as to hold it fully distended, and 
is confined there by tying the straps over the back of the 
head. By holding up the head of the sheep and inserting 
a horn or tube through the hole in the wood, fluid can 
be poured down the throat without difficulty. A probang 
can more conveniently be inserted through the same 
aperture in case of choking. 

SHEEP TICKS. 

A flock of sheep infested with ticks cannot be kept in 
good order, and when a flock of lambs are made the prey 
of this parasite they become poor and week by spring 
and these destructive parasites rapidly reduce them lower, 
and render it extremely difficult to save their lives. Ticks 
are found on all sheep in proportionate numbers as the 
flock has been neglected or properly attended. The 
heat and cold and the nibbling and biting to which they 
are exposed on newly shorn sheep, drive them to take 
shelter in the long wool of the lambs. Here they are so 
readily exterminated that it is much a disgrace as a loss 
to the flockmaster to suffer them to remain in the flock. 
About ten days or two weeks subsequent to shearing, the 
lambs should be dipped in decoction of tobacco strong 
enough to not only kill the tick, but to destroy the vitality 
of the eggs. 

WEEDS AND SHEEP. 

Of the 600 weeds and grasses growing in the North- 
west, it is estimated by those who have made a study of 
it; that sheep will eat not less than 576 of them, while 
horses consume but eighty-two, and cattle only fifty-six 



256 farmers' friend 



of them. The fact is sheep prefer many kind of weeds 
to grasses, and weedy cattle and horse pastures are 
always improved by turning a small flock of sheep into 
them. 

SULPHUR FOR INSECTS. 

An agriculturist of South Braintree, Mass., has found 
a mixture of sulj^hur and find ground tobacco, two parts 
of the former to one of the latter, as an excellent preven- 
tive of the ravages of insects on squash and other vines, 
as well as keeping lice from cattle, dog and poultry. He 
also recommends its use for sprinkling trees and Wshes 
that are eaten by canker worms or currant worms. Sul- 
phur is exellent for use in the poultry house and stable, 
and so is tobacco and snuff, used with care, but we are 
inclined to choose a mixture of plaster of paris with 
just enough paris green to give it a light tinge, as being 
cheaper and more effective for squash vines. 



Varieties of Poultry* 

VARIETIES OF POULTRY. 

There are eighty-seven standard and a large number 
of promiscuous varieties of chickens raised in this coun- 
try. The standard varieties are divided as follows : 

1. American Class — Barred, buif, peacomb barred, 
and white Plymouth Rocks ; silver, golden, white, buff 
and black Wyandottes; black, mottled and white Javas; 
American Dominiques and Jerse}^ Blues. 

2. Asiatic Class — Light and dark Brahmas ; buff, 
partridge, white and black Cochin ; black and white Lang- 
shans. 

3. Mediterranean Class — Brown, rose comb brown, 
black, Dominique, buff and silver duckwing Leghorns; 
black and white Miuorcas; Andalusians and black Span- 
ish. 

4. Polish Class — White-crested black, golden, silver, 



FARMERS FRIEND 



257 




Dark Brahmas. 




258 



FARMERS FRIEND 




White Brahmas. 




farmers' friend 259 



white, bearded golden, bearded silver, bearded white and 
buff laee. 

5. Hamburg Class— Golden-spangled, silver-span- 
gled, golden-penciled, silver-penciled, white and black 
HamburgSj redcaps; silver and golden Campines. 

6. French Class — Honudans, Crevecoeurs, and col- 
ored Dorkings. 

7. English Class — White, silver, gray and colored 
Dorkings, 

8. Game and Game Bantam Class — Blackbreasted 
red, brown red, golden duckwiug, silver duckwing, red 
pyle, white, black and Birchen games ; the same varieties 
for game bantams. Cornish and white Indian games; 
Malays and black Sumatra games. 

9. Bantam Class, Other than Game — Golden and 
silver Sebrights; white and black rose comb; booted 
white; buff partridge, white and black Cochins; black- 
tailed, white and black Japanese, and white crested white 
Polish. 

10. Miscellaneous Class — Russians, silkies. Sultans, 
frizzles and rumpless. 

For practical purposes the above ten classes may be 
grouped into four general classes, as follows : 

1. The general purpose breeds : The American class. 

2. The meat or table breeds: The Asiatic class. 

3. The egg breeds: The Mediterranean class. 

4. The ornamental breeds: The Polish, exhibition 
games, miscellaneous, and bantam classes. 

CHICKEN CHOLERA. 

What has been said of hog cholera may with equal 
truth be said of chicken cholera. There is no cure for 
the genuine chicken cholera. But the chicken, like the 
hog, has a score or more of ailments that are generally 
termed cholera that are no kin to this dreaded disease. 

If the raisers of poultry would be more careful a1)out 
doping their chickens and put the money spent into suit- 
able quarters for the chickens they no doubt would find 
chickens more profitable. 



260 farmers' friend 



Following- are the most common diseases of the 
chicken : 



(Poultry World.) 

''Misfortunes never come singly." This is especially 
true of the roup, for very seldom is it, either because the 
disease is contagious or because the same cause operates 
to i^roduce this eifect upon quite a number of the fowls, 
that the roup attacks a single fowl. Generally several 
are attacked at once, and the breeder has plenty of 
trouble on hand without borrowing any. Vigorous meas- 
ures are strictly in order, but after the removal of the 
affected fowl or fowls, the first thing to be done is to seek 
for the cause of the disease, and when found to remove it. 

Roup may generally be traced to want of cleanliness, 
improper ventilation or undue exposure ; and the poultry- 
man who has provided against these causes is reasonably 
safe against the roup. But it sometimes happens that 
the cause is obscure and difficult to find. In such cases 
the wants of the fouls should be carefully looked after, 
and a little tonic given in the food, with a few drops of 
aconite in the water. 

The diseased fowls, separated from the rest, should be 
given comfortable quarters and properly treated. Per- 
haps as sensible a treatment as any would be first of all 
to cause them to inhale the fumes of cresoline; then to 
oi^en the bowels with a good dose of castor oil; after 
which keep the eyes and nostrils washed out with chlor- 
inated soda diluted in water, and administer German 
roup pills according to directions. A few drops of 
aconite may be added to the drink. If a fowl is treated 
in this way it will recover from the roup if the case is 
curable. ]3ut no medicine and no system of treating can 
cure every case of roup. Some will die, do whatever 
you may. 

GAPES. 

The Gapes is a very common ailment of poultry and 
domestic birds. More common among the young than 
the old. 



farmers' friend 261 



Cause. — The disease is caused by the presence of little 
red worms in the wind-pipe, about the size of a small 
cambric needle. 

Symptoms. — Gaping for breath with beak wide open, 
yellow beak, tongue dry and feathers ruffled on the head 
and neck. 

Treatment. — Give a pill each morning made of equal 
parts of scraped garlic and horse radish, with as much 
cayenne pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat, mix 
with fresh butter. 

If a good many are affected, put from 5 to 10 drops of 
turpentine to a pint of meal. 

Treatment must be given in the early stages of the 
disease, or all remedies will fail. 



Symptoms. — The fowls labor for breath, opening the 
beak often and for quite a time, and sometimes drops of 
blood appearing on the beak. 

Treatment. — Take the disease in hand as soon as dis- 
covered, keep the fowl warm, and give equal parts of 
sulphur and fresh butter (or fresh lard) thoroughly 
mixed. 

! 
GOOD EEMEDIES FOR THE CHICKEN CHOLERA. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of chicken cholera are 
greenish droppings, prostration, and intense thirst. It 
should not be mistaken for indigestion. Cholera kills 
quickly, and this is a sure indication. 

Remedy. — The best remedy is to add a teaspoonful of 
carbolic acid to a quart of water and give no other water 
to drink. The remedy is not a sure cure, but is one of 
the best. When cholera puts in an appearance, every- 
thing on the place should be thoroughly cleaned and dis- 
infected, the remedy mentioned above being also an excel- 
lent disinfectant. 

Another Good Receipt. 

^ pound madder, 
I pound sulphur. 



262 FAKMERS' FRIEND 



2 ounces antimony, 
2 ounces saltpetre, 
^ pound cayenne pepper. 
Mix a tablespoonful in feed for 30 chickens. 

A correspondent of the London Live Stock Journal 
wrote that paper : Last May, I preserved 200 eggs in the 
following way: — 1^ lbs. unslacked lime, 1 lb. salt, 4 gal- 
lons water. Boil together for quarter of an hour, strain 
through a colander, and pour over the eggs when cold. 
I began to use the eggs in October, and have not yet 
quite finished them. I have not had one bad egg, but 
they were all fresh laid when pickled, that is within a 
week. I have preserved 200 at a time in this way for 
four years, and have only found two bad eggs amongst 
them. They are very good poached, but do not boil well. 
I put them in a deep crockery pot, without a cover, but 
care must be taken that the eggs are entirely covered with 
the pickle. The editor adds : This is a very good way. 
and the method with lime and salt is very largely used, 
as it deserves. If you add to your present mixture about 
I lb. cream of tartar, and leave the whole to blend and 
temper together for a week before using, I think you will 
find that the quality for boiling is improved. 



CHICKENS IN HOT WEATHER. 

The sudden dying of young chicks in hot weather is 
almost always caused by lice. Look around the head 
and neck, and a few big fellows may be seen which tor- 
ment the chicken so that it cannot be thrifty. Rub some 
grease of any kind about the head and neck and under 
the wings. This is sure death to the pests and does the 
chicks no harm. It is well to use it as a preventive, for 
if lice get on the chicks in hot weather, many chicks will 
die before the remedy can be applied. 



farmers' friend 263 



"POULTRY RAISERS' EGG FOOD POWDER." 

(to make hens lay eggs.) 
Red pepper powdered, '2 ounces, 
Allspice powdered, 4 ounces, 
Ginger powdered, 6 ounces. 
Mix them by sifting. 

One tablespoonful to be mixed with every pound of 
food, and fed 2 or 3 times a week. Also feed choped-up 
fresh meat. 

RAISING CHICKENS. 

He who expects to raise poultry without devoting con- 
stant care and attention to them will generally score a 
failure. "Eternal vigilance" is the price of chickens! 
Not exactly the kind of vigilance that liberty requires, 
but a painstaking and sensible application to the needs 
and requirements of the incubating eggs and the growing 
chickens. The hen must be watched and attended to 
while sitting, and the eggs looked after every few days; 
for if one is broken in the nest all the others are smeared 
over the surface, and it should be soaked awhile in water, 
and carefully cleaned before replacing in the nest. Mois- 
ture is another great esential in the hatching process, 
and the eggs should be sprinkled with tepid water about 
once or twice a week. 

Some people have a "wholly horror" about meddling 
with eggs after they have been set; but this is only a 
superstition, and what we might denominate a "senti- 
mental notion", for art has as much to do in bringing 
out a little chicken as nature, that is, it comes in as a val- 
uable help in supplementing nature's work. 

The first two or three days of a chicken's life are the 
most critical, and as they are very young and feeble, 
great care must be exercised in attending to them. While 
they then require very little nourishment, yet what is giv- 
en them should be very fine, corn meal baked in a pan in 
the oven, with two or three eggs mixed in, but no salt, 
as salt is injurious to the young chickens. A shallow 



264 " farmers' friend 



dish of water should be kept in reach of the hen and 
brood. The corn bread should be soaked in hot water 
as wanted, and fed quite often. 

Since lice are the great pest of the chickens, as soon 
as the hen comes off with her brood she should be caught 
and her body inverted, while abundance of Persain In- 
sect Powder (Delmatian) must be sprinkled well through 
her feathers, and worked in close to the skin. The coop 
should also be well dusted on the bottom, and this oper- 
ation repeated once or twice a week during the time the 
hen is allowed to carry the chickens. After the mother 
is taken away, the young chickens should be sprinkled 
with the same powder occasionally after they have gone 
up in the evening. 

There is really no more efficient foe to insectivorous 
life than the Delmatian powder, and hence it is a neces- 
sity about every chicken house, and should be used freely, 
as it has no injurious effect on the chickens, only destroy- 
ing lice and other insects. 

The cleaning of the coops and chicken houses is another 
matter of much importance. The mother, with the 
chickens, shojild be placed out doors after the latter are 
a day or two old, and the coops moved every other day, 
or else well cleaned out and disinfected. Should the 
weather be very inclement it is always best to bring the 
brood in the house, or in same clean dry place until the 
bad weather is over. 

The early care is of the most importance, and they 
should be most carefully watched and guarded during the 
first week or two. Many young chickens are very frail 
and tender — especially new breeds which through more 
or less inbreeding, do not posess the inherent vigor of the 
old established breeds. We had a very fine flock of 
twenty Golden Wyandottes which were placed out doors 
too soon this summer, and wet weather coming on they 
fared badly, every morning finding one of them keeled 
over on its back and about to die. After removing the 
hen and brood to our wareroom floor, they all seemed to 
do better, and no more of the little ''goldens" were lost. 
But this bit of experience cost us six chickens, only four- 



farmers' friend 265 



teen now remaining of the lot. So we must understand 
that in trying to raise these new breeds — the new white 
breeds of others, extra care must be exercised at all 
times. 

Look out for lice. They are often the cause of the 
spread of contagious diseases, it is said. Place a few 
tobacco stems in the nest under the straw and it will 
keep the lice away. 

One of the best materials for making liens' nests is the 
outside peel of onions. It will drive away if it does 
destroy hen lice. These peelings, or a piece of the onion 
itself, ought to be always in nests where hens are sitting 
on eggs. The warmth of the hen's body will so scent 
her feathers that the lice will be glad to clear out, and 
the hen will be equally glad to have them do so. With a 
good place for rolling in the dust under cover, so 
that the dust will not be turned into mud, it is not diffi- 
cult to keep hens free from vermin. 

THE CHICKEN MITE. 

HOW TO DESTROY MITES. 

One of the most formidable enemies of chickens is un- 
questionably the chicken mite, scientifically called Der- 
manyssus gaUinae Redi. My observations have demon- 
strated that chickens infested with mites are exceedingly 
unprofitable. The cost of keeping them is increased and 
the income from them is very much reduced. Indeed, 
when very badly infested they are totally incapacitated 
for performing work. 

The hens will cease laying. 

Hatching hens will often either die on the nest as a re- 
sult of the mite infestation or will leave their eggs, liter- 
ally driven away by the vast hordes of mites which ac- 
cumulate upon them. 

Another verv important feature of the evil effects of 
mites is the injury they do to newborn chicks. If the hen 
survives the ordeal to which she is subjected while hatch- 
ing, the young chicks are attacked by the mites in great 
swarms as soon as they leave the protection of the shell, 
and, as a rule, the majority of them will succumb. I have 



266 farmers' friend 



known the loss of newborn chicks from this cause to reach 
ninety per cent. 

KEROSENE EMULSION WILL DESROY MITES. HOW MADE. 

Take one-half pound of hard soap and shave it into a 
gallon of soft water and put it on the fire and bring it to 
a boil. By this time the soap will have dissolved. Then 
remove the soap solution from the fire and stir into it at 
once, while hot, two gallons of kerosene. This makes a 
thick creamy emulsion which is made ready for use by di- 
luting with ten volumes of 50/^ water and stirring well. 
It can be utilized as a spray, dip or wash. 

Make ui3 as much of the stock emulsion as it is thought 
will be needed. This can be kept in a suitable vessel and 
a portion taken out and diluted as needed. If the bucket 
or holder attached to the spray pump holds five gallons, 
one-half gallon of the stock emulsion should be taken and 
put into the bucket or holder and four and one-half gal- 
lons of soft water added and the whole well stirred. It 
is then ready to be sprayed on the places occupied by the 
mites. A beginning should be made at a particular place 
and the whole habitation of the mites sprayed in a regular 
order of which account should be taken so that the same 
order may be followed in subsequent sprayings. The 
spray should be directed with special care into all crev- 
ices, holes, joints, or other hiding and breeding-places of 
the mites. The first spray of kerosene emulsion will kill 
within five minutes all of the mites and eggs with which 
it comes into contact, but many mites will be left in the 
hiding-places unaffected by the spray. Hence the spray- 
ing should be repeated as soon as the first spraying is 
completed. Even this will not kill all of the mites, hence 
a third spraying should be done as soon as the second is 
completed. At each repetition the beginning should be 
made at the same place and the same order followed as 
in the first. These three sprayings done in one day and 
in rapid succession will destroy nearly all- of the mites, 
but, as my researches have shown, many eggs are left in 
places untouched bv the spray. If mites are seen crawl- 
ing about the building the next day, it should be swrayed 



FARMERS FRIEND 



267 



again One might ordinarily suppose that he had now- 
exterminated the mites. But such is not the case, for, in 
about three days, a crop of young mites will be found 
hatched from the eggs which escaped the first spraying. 
If these would be allowed to go undisturbed, it would not 
be long until the building would be as badly infested as at 
the beginning. Therefore the spraying should be repeated 
once every three or four days, spraying two or three 
times on each occasion, for about two weeks. 

You will have no more bother from mites during that 
season. 

The cost of the remedy is very small. The cost of mak- 
ing thirty gallons of the emulsion is as follows : 

Two gallons kero.sene at 18c 36c. 

One-half pound hard soap at 8c 4c. 

Labor 5c. 

Total 45c. 

This will be enough to spray the ordinary farm hen- 
house once. 

PRESERVING EGGS. 

E. P. LADD, AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, N, D. 

At the present time eggs are largely packed in lime, 
salt and other products, or are put in cold storage for 
winter use, but such eggs are very far from being per- 
fect when they come upon the markets, and frequently 
one-half of them are unfit for use, if we are to judge from 
the condition of the Fargo market. A method to be gen- 
erally employed must be simple, cheap and the eggs, when 
wanted for use, must be of good quality. 

There w^as need for a simple method of preserving- 
eggs, one which would enable the farmers or the con- 
sumers to put away their eggs during the summer months 
when they are plentiful and command but a small price, 
to be used in times of scarcity when the price of eggs 
rules exceptionally high. For this reason six years ago 
we were led to make experiments in preserving eggs by 
various means. Of the methods tested, waterglass was 
the most promising and our experiments continued 
through several seasons with most satisfactory results. 



268 farmers' friend 



The shell of an egg has a very thin coating of mucil- 
agenous, albuminous matter upon its surface that seems 
to protect the egg for a considerable time from atmos- 
pheric action or the introduction of the germs of decom- 
position. If this coating be removed immediately after 
the egg is deposited, while still warm, the keeping qual- 
ity seems to be much reduced, or if eggs that become 
soiled in the nest are washed, this albuminous coating is 
softened and the life of the egg shortened thereby. 

It is believed that in waterglass we have a preservative 
which will, when used for preserving eggs, give better 
satisfaction than any other method available for those 
who desire to keep eggs for any great length of time. 

Eggs put down by this method have been kept for from 
three to nine months and the eggs have come out in bet- 
ter condition than by any other method tested. When 
strictly fresh eggs only, have been put down, at the end of 
six months they have invariably come out in better shape 
than the average market eggs supposed to be fresh. 

This method has been tested, in a commercial way, in 
nearly every state and part of our country and we have 
not had to exceed eight adverse reports. One party in 
Maine reports that during the summer of 1903 he put 
down, by this method, 6,000 dozen of fresh eggs, and, in 
the following December and January, he was selling 
these eggs, receiving the highest prices paid for strictly 
fresh eggs and was frequently told that they were the 
best to be had. We might quote from such trials made, 
during the past three years by parties in North Dakota, 
California, Carolina, New York, etc., but the general 
tenor of all are about the same. 

After experiments made with solutions of various 
strengths, and under varying conditions, we found that 
an eight to ten per cent solution of waterglass would pre- 
serve eggs very effectually, so that at the end of eight 
months eggs that were preserved the first part of the 
summer appear to be perfectly fresh. In most packed 
eggs, after a little time, the yolk settles to one side, and 
the egg is then inferior in quality. In boiling eggs pre- 
served for eight months in waterglass the yolk retained 



FAEMERS' FRIEND 269 



its normal position in the egg, and in taste they were 
not to be distinguished from fresh, unpacked store eggs. 
Again, most packed eggs will not beat up well for cake- 
making or for frosting, while eggs from a solution in 
waterglass seemed quite equal to the average fresh store 
eggs of the market. It should be borne in mind that in 
these experiments only fresh eggs were used for pre- 
serving; no egg was more than four days old. Eggs 
that have already become stale cannot be successfully 
preserved by this or any known method so as to come out 
fresh. 

WHAT IS WATERGLASS ? 

Waterglass (Sodium Silicate) is a very cheap product 
that can usually be procured at not to exceed fifty cents 
per gallon, and one gallon will make enough solution to 
preserve fifty dozen of eggs, so that the cost of material 
for this method would only be about one cent per dozen. 
Waterglass is sodium and potassium silicate, sodium sil- 
icate being usually the cheaper. 

NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS. 

1. The eggs to be put down by this method must be 
fresh and not stale store eggs. A few stale eggs will 
soon injure the entire lot. One party reports that he put 
down two lots of eggs, fifty gallon jars in each case; one 
lot strictly fresh eggs, the other contained some stale 
store stock, and the first was a complete success while 
the second lot came out about like the ordinary packed 
eggs, some fair, some spoiled. 

2. A good grade 'of waterglass must be used. Some 
of the cheap waterglass contains so much of free, uncom- 
bined alkali that the eggs preserved in such solutions 
become watery and acquire a bad flavor. I prefer water- 
glass in the form of heavy white jelly which flows like 
heavy cold molasses. Of this grade of waterglass some- 
what less is needed than when the thinner product is 
employed. The dry powder waterglass has not as a gen- 



270 farmers' friend 



eral rule dissolved fully in hot water, and for that reason 
has not proven as satisfactory as the first named product. 
3. Galvanized iron vessels, crocks, jars, etc., may be 
used in which to preserve the eggs. Wooden kegs of 
good quality are satisfactory, but these must be thor- 
oughly sweetened by scalding with boiling water. There 
have been a few complaints that barrels have not been 
entirely satisfactory as the waterglass dissolved some 
products which deposited on the eggs. I am inclined to 
think this may have been due to the presence of glue used 
as sizing for the barrel. When the barrels have such a 
coating it might be well to char the inside of the barrel 
by placing in it a few shavings saturated with kerosene 
oil and then throwing in a lighted taper and allowing the 
sides of the barrel to become charred. This barrel, well- 
burned and then thoroughly washed, should be free from 
any glue-like products. 

DIRECTIONS. 

For those who may desire to test this method I give the 
following directions : 

Use pure water that has been thoroughly boiled and 
then cooled. To each ten quarts of water add one quart 
or slightly less of waterglass. When the heavy jelly-like 
solution is used, three-fourths of a quart of waterglass 
will be ample. 

The solution may be prepared, placed in the jar and 
fresh eggs added from time to time until the jar is filled, 
but, be sure that there is fully two inches of waterglass 
solution to cover the eggs. 

Keep the eggs in a cool, dark place and well covered 
to prevent evaporation. A cool cellar is a good place in 
which to keep the eggs. 

If the eggs are kept in too warm a place the silicate 
is deposited and the eggs are not properly protected. Do 
not wash the eggs before packing, for by so doing, you 
injure their keeping quality, probably dissolving the mu- 
cilagenous coating on the outside of the shell. 

For packing use only perfectly fresh eggs, for stale 
eggs will not be saved and may prove harmful to the 
others. 



FAEMEKS' FRIEND 271 



All packed eggs contain a little gas and in boiling such 
eggs they will crack. This may be prevented by making 
a pin-hole in the blunt end of the egg. To do this hold 
the egg in the hand, place the point of a pin against the 
shell of the egg at the blunt end and give the pin a quick, 
sharp blow just enough to drive the pin through the shell 
without injury to the egg. 

NOTE : — The author of this book wishes to say he has 
been preserving eggs by this method during the past 
three years. It is impossible to distinguish the eggs 
from fresh ones. 



The egg and poultry industry of the United States pro- 
duced a revenue in 1900 of not less than $305,000,000, a 
sum that passes the average man's comprehension alto- 
gether. Eoughly estimated there are 350,000,000 hens 
in this country. In round numbers thev laid 14,000,000,- 
000 eggs in 1900, the value of which "fruit" was $175,- 
000,000, The value of the poultry actually consumed last 
year in the United States is placed at $130,000,000 and 
the actual worth of the 350,000,000 biddies at 30 cents 
per head is $105,000,000. With such an array of colos- 
sal values, trulv the "business hen" richly merits her 
title. 



One of the secrets of success with poultry is not to 
keep any unprofitable birds ; sell them as soon as possible. 



Forty hens can no more eat from one plate than forty 
people. Broadcast grain and provide long troughs for 
feeding soft food. 



A feather pulling flock is almost worthless because it 
requires more food to produce more feathers, and the 
supply of eggs falls off correspondingly. 



That poultry can be made a business has been demon- 
strated at several points, but success has generally at- 
tended those who did not confine themselves to one ob- 



272 



FARMERS FRIEND 



ject, but sold poultry and eggs, as well as taking advan- 
tage of the liigli prices for early chicks. 



The Spanish and Leghorn fowls are the best foragers 
among the different breeds of fowls. 



To cleanse the poultry house and yard use white wash, 
lime, copperas, and carbolic acid water freely. 



POULTRY-HOUSE SHOULD BE PROPERLY VEN- 
TILATED IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN HEALTH OF 
FLOCK AND SECURE FULL YIELD OF EGGS. 

One of the most interesting of station bulletins is one 
issued by Professor Rice of the Cornell (N. Y.) station. 
This bulletin shows the science and value of ventilating 
the hen coop, and it is worth the time of every reader 
who has a few chickens to read it. Speaking of the 
science of ventilating, the bulletin contains the following 
thoughts : 

''The hen's normal temperature is 105 to 106. She 
does not suffer as much on a cold day as a human being. 
But she can only keep warm by keeping alive those nat- 
ural fires within her that are kept burning by respiration, 
or, practically, combustion. The temperature is main- 
tained only by the passage of pure air into the lungs, 
which act as a rapidly worked pump, and it is this pump- 
ing, or breathing, that keeps up the proper degree of 
warmth. This is the secret of it all. Hence a man who 
shuts his hens up in tight houses where the air becomes 
vitiated and stale, can hardly expect to get anything but 
poor production and vitality as a result. As an example 
of this, take any two flocks of birds. Put one in a tight, 
vitiated pen and the other where plenty of good pure air 
can circulate. The former flock will be the colder, and if 
the frost comes it will be found that the hen or rooster 
that has its comb frozen will in the majority of cases come 
from the pen where the ventilation was poor. 



FAEMERS ' FRIEND 273 



HOUSE NEED NOT BE LARGE. 

A henhouse does not have to be large. It should 
simply be large enough for the hens to heat it comfort- 
ably. As to the ventilation, it should be reasonably open 
in front, so as to get air without a draft. The old theory 
that a henhouse should be built on a hill is exhausted, and 
a new one, that the more sheltered the spot the better, 
has come into existence. Allowing a cubic foot of air 
space for every pound of live weight, and figuring on the 
basis of a dairy stable, the henhouse only needs to be one 
foot high. The main thing is to get a good and uniform 
circulation of fresh air. It is just as essential as corn, 
meal, meat, scraps, or anything else. It feeds the lungs, 
and they, through the process of breathing, cleanse the 
whole body. By ducts running through the entire body 
the hen can inflate herself with air. These passage ways 
or pipes run through bones, muscles, and organs, so that 
it is essential, when they are used, that the air be pure 
instead of vitiated and stale." 

HEALTH EXPERIMENTS. 

In considering the value of ventilation, the station 
found that proper ventilation greatly assisted in main- 
taining the health of the flock. Two coops were used in 
finding the value of ventilation upon the health of the 
birds. One had a glass front and the other a muslin 
front. Fifteen white Wyandotte cockerels were put in 
each coop. Speaking of the result, the bulletin has the 
following to say: 

"They were kept there some months, and each day 
readings were taken as to temperature, density of sun- 
light, dampness, etc. At the end of that time it was 
found that in the glass house, there was one with a bright 
red, and fourteen with lop, dull combs. In the muslin 
fronted coop it was just the reverse, fourteen had bright 
combs and only one had a lop comb. White Wyandottes 
were used because of their well known trait of showing 
their condition by the appearance of the comb. ' ' 

VENTILATION AND EGG PRODUCTION. 

In the production of eggs the muslin front coop had the 



274 farmers' friend 



decided advantage. The bulletin describes that experi- 
ment as follows : 

"The next experiment was to determine the effect of 
ventilation on egg productiveness. An equal number of 
brown leghorn pullets were put into each of the houses, 
and at the end of the specified time it was found that 
four of the pullets in the glass front house had died, and 
that the birds in the muslin front coop had laid eighty- 
six eggs more than their competitors. In general, it was 
found that it was only one and one-half degrees colder 
in the muslin fronted house than in the house with a 
glass front." 



BREEDERS' TABLE. 

Table giving the periods of gestation of different 
animals : 

Mare 340 days 

Cow 283 " 

Ewe 150 " 

Sow 112 " 



THE PERIOD OF GESTATION IN COWS. 

A recent bulletin of the New York Cornell Experiment 
Station reports observations since 1889 on the period of 
gestation of all of the cows of the university herd, which, 
"has contained an average of about 20 cows, about two- 
thirds Holstein and high grade Holstein, one-third Jersey 
and high grade Jersey, and a few native, mixed and 
cross-bred cattle. Nearly all the animals were bred and 
raised on the farm from dams so bred and raised, so that 
observations were taken from a single herd and its de- 
scendents. In all 194 observations have been made; of 
these, 9 terminated in the birth of dead calves prior to 



FAEMERS' FRIEND 275 



253 days of pregnancy and 3 more were doubtful, so 
that the 12 have been excluded and the average confined 
to the 182 births that may be considered normal". 

"Of the 182 births, the average period of gestation was 
almost exactly 280 days. 

The period of gestation was the same for male and 
female calves. The period of gestation where twins were 
born was five days less than the general average, and 
eight days less than the average of the single births of 
the same cows. Many cows show a well marked indi- 
vidual characteristic as to period of gestation, which may 
be several days longer or shorter than the average." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 103. 

One of the most important things for the farmer to 
know is when he should give special care to his stock. 
It is too late when you find the pigs dead out with a drove 
of hogs. The calf frozen to death in the corn stalks. 
The colt dead and the mother tied by the head to the 
manger. The ewe bleating for the lamb that the old 
sow is feasting upon. 

No farmer will deny that this table alone is worth many 
times the price of the book to any farmer. 

It is true there is a slight variation in the periods of 
gestation and in the case of mares some times a whole 
month. 

The following table gives you the time when you should 
prepare a suitable and comfortable place for the animal. 



HOW TO USE THE BREEDERS' TABLE. 

On the left of the page you will find numbers one, two 
and three. These are the places where you may put the 
names of three different animals just preceding the 
month when bred, then in a straight line across to where 
you find the kind of animal here make a check with the 
pencil and the record is made. If it were a mare you 
make the check in the first column. A cow the check 
comes in the second column, etc. 



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farmers' friend 313 



SUCCESS— WHAT IS IT? 

A Kansas woman, Mrs. A. J. Stanley, of Lincoln, has 
been awarded a prize of $250.00 by a Boston firm for the 
best answer to the question, "What constitutes suc- 
cess"? She writes: "He has achieved success who has 
lived well,laughed often and loved much ; who has gained 
the respect of intelligent men and the love of little chil- 
dren ; who has filled his niche and accomplished his task ; 
who has left the world better than he found it, whether by 
an improved poppy, a perfect poem or a second soul; 
who has never lacked appreciation of earth's beauty or 
failed to express it; who has always looked for the best 
in others and given the best he had; whose life was an 
inspiration; whose memory a benediction." 

HOW TO USE THE INTEREST TABLES. 

The interest tables that have heretofore been placed 
before the public were so complicated that the farmer 
did not take the time to study the table. Many a farmer 
today has an interest table in his home to which he pays 
no attention. Following we give you a table that by 
adding three colums of figures will give you the interest 
on any amount of money from ten cents to one thousand 
dollars. 

The interest on ten cents for one year is less than one 
cent for any rate of interest that is allowed by law, 
hence we start with that amount. 

What is the interest on one hundred dollars and sev- 
enty cents for six months and thirteen davs, at eight per 
cent? 

Interest on one hundred dollars for six months is $4.00 

Interest on one hundred dollars for thirteen days 

is ■. . .29 

Interest on seventy cents for six months is 03 



Interest is $4.32 

The legal rate of interest in Iowa is six per cent. Eight 
per cent if note or contract specifies that amount. 



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318 farmers' friend 



TEUSTS. 

I 

No complete list of trusts lias ever been published. 
The Year Book of the "Journal of Commerce and Com- 
mercial Bulletin" for 1899 gives a list of 353 "Trusts 
and Combinations", with a total capitalization of $4,- 
247,918,981 of common stock, $870,575,200 of preferred 
stock in addition to a bonded indebtedness of $714,388,- 
661, making a total of $5,832,882,842. 

A LIST OF THIRTEEN OF THE LARGEST 
TRUSTS. 

Capital. 

American Ice Co $ 60,000,000 

American Steel and Wire Co ,. . . . 85,250,000 

Central Lumber Co 70.000,000 

Carnegie Steel Co 625,000,000 

Chemical 50,000,000 

Continental Tobacco Co 92,690,000 

Cotton Yarn 80,000,000 

Federal Steel Co 99,251,000 

National Tube Co 65,000,000 

Reading Co 150,000,000 

Standard Oil Co 97,000,000 

United States Leather Co 125,108,000 

Wholesale Grocers 75 000,000 

13 Standard 

The trust is a modern invention. "It was conceived in 
sin and brought forth in iniquity." Its object is to con- 
trol by combination the price of the necessaries of life 
and thus levy black-mail from the laboring millions. As 
civilization progresses the necessaries of life become 
cheaper. This is the law of social growth. The loaf of 
bread and the 1)eefsteak is cheaper in New York than in 
Chicago, cheaper in Chicasfo than Des Moiu'^s. Th^ 
farmer can get a better meal in Chicago or San Fra^ci'^co 
than he can for the same money in his nearest county 
seat. The American beefsteak, better than any that 
graces the tables outside of the large cities, is retailed in 



farmers' friend 319 



coimtry towns in the north of Ireland at about the same 
price of cheap cow beef that the farmer sells at two 
cents per pound. The beef on the foot brings twice as 
much, but the retailer sells at the smallest profit and 
every scrap is utilized. 

The older America becomes the cheaper should be the 
necessaries of life. The object of all trusts is to sus- 
pend the law of competition and arrest this working of 
the law of civilization. It was first bred in coal oil. 
When i)etroleum was poured out of the wells of Penn- 
sylvania in volumes sufficient to light the world, the 
Standard Oil Company secured a practical monopoly of 
the means of transporation, thus closing out rival wells 
and dictating prices. Had it not been for special rates 
or the doctrine of wholesaling in transporation this could 
not have been possible. The Standard oil is the legiti- 
mate result of the doctrine of ''ten cents apiece or three 
for a quarter" when applied to transporation. When- 
ever any man, firm or corporation secures a special rate 
on account of the number of car loads he ships, the germ 
of the Standard Oil combinations is planted and will 
grow. The success of Standard Oil has encouraged other 
trusts — cotton seed oil, anthracite, coal, natural gas, 
sugar, etc., etc. The natural ally of the trust is the 
railroad combination and special rates. Take, for in- 
stance, anthracite coal. Many a poor child shivers in the 
cold in every storm because the anthracite coal companies 
which own the mines and the roads limit the output, 
raise the rates and levy black-mail. The hardware stores 
of Iowa are full of hard-coal stoves for sale at one-third 
of their cost because their owners will not submit to the 
dictation of the anthracite coal trust or ring. The ques- 
tion of what shall be done is a serious one. This arti- 
ficial limitation of the necessaries of life is a crime 
against society and should be so treated. A term of 
breaking stone in a striped suit would make the robbers 
realize the enormity of the crime against society. The 
absolute removal of the tariif from every article that 
has been limited in production by a trust would strike 
terror to the conspirators who artificially enhance the 



320 farmers' friend 



necessaries of life. Let this robbery be made as odious 
and disreputable as any other form of robbery. 

It is useless, however, for journalists to inveigh against 
the trust and advocate the principle of wholesaling in 
transportation. Notice how it works. Three-fourths of 
the sugar refineries combine and form a trust, and one- 
fourth stay out. The trust goes to one railroad and says, 
we will give you our entire traffic if you will give us a 
secret rebate. The railroad gives them ten cents reduc- 
tion. The trust says to the jobber, we will sell ten cents 
per hundred weight under any competition. The out- 
side refinery reduces the price, the trust goes ten cents 
lower, and the outside makes another reduction. Soon 
there is nothing left but the trust, and prices are raised 
and the people robbed. So it is in everything. The 
trust cannot succeed unless the railroad helps it. It is 
well for the people to see where the roots of the trust ex- 
tend, to see also the specious sophistry that is used to 
deceive them as to the partners in the conspiracy against 
society. There is no solution of the problem short of a 
recognition of the fact that the railroad is a public high- 
way on which the man who ships a car-load of stock for 
a way station has equal rights and equal freights per 
car-load with the trust that ships a thousand car-loads. 
Competition will bring most of the trusts to terms if it 
is unlimited. Severe laws and an enlightened public 
opinion will bring the rest when the facts are brought 
clearly before the people. 

Let the legislature of Iowa do its duty. Let the people 
have a cat-o'-nine tails ready for use next fall on the 
member of congress that fails to do his duty. Let the 
farmer resolve that hereafter he will vote for his farm, 
and all will be well. 

HOW TO MEASURE EAR CORN IN THE CRIB. 

Measuring corn in the crib is at best an estimate. Much 
depends upon the condition of the corn. A bushel of 
corn means either a bushel of shelled corn or ear corn 
enough to make a bushel of shelled corn. 

Rule.— Multiply the length in feet by the height in 



farmers' friend 



321 



feet and that again by the width in feet, multiply the 
result by 4 and cut off the riglit hand figure and you have 
the contents in bushels of shelled corn. 

Example: How many bushels of shelled corn in a 
crib of corn in the ear, 20 feet long, 10 feet high and 8 
feet wide I 

Solution: 20X10X8X4=640.0 bushels. Ans. 

This rule is not only very simple but is very frequently 
used. It will hold out in good dry corn. 

When the crib is flared at the side multiply half the 
sum of the top and bottom widths in feet by the perpen- 




dicular height in feet, and then again by the length in 
feet. This gives the number of cubic feet. Then pro- 
ceed as above. 



HOW TO MEASURE HAY IN THE MOW OR STACK. 



A ton of dry hay is variously estimated from 400 to 
500 cubic feet to the ton. 

To be on the safe side, it is best to estimate about 500 
cubic feet to the ton. 



322 



FARMERS FRIEND 



HAY IN A MOW. 

Rule. — Multiply the length in feet by the height in feet, 
and this by one-half the height, and divide the product 
500, and you have the number of tons. 

Example: How many tons of hay in a mow 20 feet 
long, 12 feet high, and 15 feet wide? 

Solution: 20X6X15^300=6 tons. Ans. 

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE NUMBER OF TONS IN A STACK, 

Ride. — Multiply the length in feet by the ividth in feet, 
and this by the breadth in feet, and divide the result by 
by 300. 

Example: How many tons of hay in a stack 20 feet 
long, 10 feet high, and 15 feet wide. 

Solution: 20x10X15^500=6. Ans. 



HOW TO ESTIMATE THE CONTENTS OF A ROUND STACK. 

Rule — Multiply the square of the distance around the 
stack in yards by 4 times the height in yards, and point 
off two places from the right, and this ivill be the number 
of cubic yards in the stack, which divided by 20 will equal 
the number of tons. 




Example : How many tons of hay in a stack, distance 
around the bulge, 25 yards, and height, 9 yards? 



FAEMERS' FRIEND 323 



Solution: 25X25=625, then 625x36=22,500, point- 
ing off two places makes 225, then 225^20=:!!^ tons. 
Ans. 

HOW TO FIND THE AMOUNT OF PAPER JTO PAPER A ROOM. 

Measure the distance around the room; deduct the 
width of each window and door ; take f of the result, and 
it will equal the number of strips required. Divide the 
result thus found by the number of strips that can be cut 
from one roll, and it will equal the number of rolls re- 
quired to paper the room. 

Each roll is 1| feet wide, 24 feet long and contains 
36 square feet or 4 square yards. 

HOW TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A WAGON BOX. 

A common Wagon Box is a little more than ten feet 
long and three feet wide, and will hold about two bushels 
for every inch in depth. 

Rule. — Multiply the depth of the ivagon box in inches 
by 2, and you have the number of bushels. 

If the wagon box is 11 feet long, multiply the depth 
in inches by 2, and add one-tenth of the number of bushels 
to itself. 




Example: How many bushels of grain will a wagon 
box hold 22 inches deep and 10 feet longf 
Solution: 22x2=24. Ans. 

N. B. — ^A bushel to the inch is calculated for corn on the coh. 



324 farmers' friend 



HOW TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF GRAIN 
IN A BIN OR BOX. 

Rule. — Multiply the length in feet hy the height in feet, 
and then again hy the breadth in feet, and then again 
hy eight, and cut off the right hand figure. The last 
result will he the numher of hushels. 

Example: How many bushels in a bin 12 feet long, 10 
feet wide, and 6 feet high? 

Solution: 12X10X6X8=576.0. Ans. 

Note. — ^For exact 'results multiply the length in inches by the height 
in inches, and that again by the width in inches, and divide the result 
by 2150.4, the number of cubic inches in a bushel. 



The dimensions of the bushel are 18-^ inches inner di- 
ameter; 19^ inches outer diameter, and 8 inches deep; 
and when heaped, the cone is not to be less than 6 inches 
high; which makes a heaped bushel equal to 1^ struck 
ones. To reduce U. S. dry measure to British ones of 
the same name, divide by 1.031516; to reduce British ones 
to U. S., multiply by 1.031516; or for common purposes 
use 1.032. 

HOW TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A ROUND TANK. 

Multiply the square of the diameter in feet hy the 
depth in feet, and midtiply this residt hy 6 and you have 
the approximate contents of the tank in gallons. {For 
exact results multiply the product hy 5^, instead of 6.) 

Example: How many gallons will a tank hold 6 feet 
in diameter and 8 feet deep? 

Solution: 6x6x8=288. 

288X6=1728 gallons. Ans. 

Note. — If the tank is larger at the bottom than at the top, find th« 
average diameter by measuring the middle part of the tank, half way 
between the top and bottom. 



FARMEKS FRIEND 



325 



FOR MORE EXACT RESULTS. 

Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter in feet by 
the depth in feet, and multiply this result by 47, and di- 
vide the product by 8, and you will have the number of 
gallons. 

Note. — In calculating the capacity of tanks, 31% gallons are esti- 
mated to one barrel, and 63 gallons to one hogshead, 

A TABLE FOR CIRCULAR TANKS ONE FOOT IN DEPTH. 

44 barrels. 



Five feet in diameter holds. 
Six feet in diameter holds. . 
Seven feet in diameter holds , 
Eight feet in diameter holds . 
Nine feet in diameter holds. 
Ten feet in diameter holds. 



6| 

9 
12 
15 
191 



N. B. — To find the contents of a tank hy the table, multiply the 
contents of one foot in depth by the number of feet deep. 

SHORTER FORMS OF HOW TO FIND THE CONTENTS 
OF CYLINDRICAL CISTERNS, TANKS, ETC. 

If you cut the largest possible square from a circle 
drawn on paper, the square will be a little more than 
f of the whole circle. Therefore, to find the area of a 
circle, take f of the square of the diameter (or for exact- 
ness .78) and the result will be the area of the circle. 

Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter of the cis- 
tern in feet, by the height in feet, and divide this result 
by 5, and it will equal the number of barrels the cistern 
will hold [approximately) . Or for exact results, instead 
of dividing by 5, take 3-16 of the product. 

Example: A cistern is 5 feet in diameter, and 8 feet 
deep. How many barrels will it hold! 

Solution; 5X5X8=200. 

200^5=40 barrels. Ans. 

To find the number of gallons, multiply by 31^. 



326 



FARMERS FRIEND 



TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BARRELS IN A SQUARE CISTERN. 

Midtiply the height, ividth and depth together, and 
divide the product obtained by 4 {or for exactness, by 
4.2), and the result ivill equal the number of barrels of 
31h gals, each, the cistern ivill hold. 
Solution: 4x8X5=160. 

160-h4=40 barrels. 

HOW TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A WATERING TROUGH. 




Rule. — Multiply the height in feet by the length in feet, 
and the product by the width in feet, and divide the re- 
sult by 4, and you ivill have the contents in barrels of 
31h gallons each. 

Exami^le : What are the contents of a watering trough 8 
feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 feet deepf 

Solution: 3x4x8^-4=24 barrels. 

Note. — For exact results multiply the length in inches by the height 
in inches, hy the with in inches, and divide the result hy 231, and 
you will have the contents in gallons. 

TABLE FOR FINDING THE CONTENTS OF SQUARE TANKS. 



A Tank Five feet by five feet holds. . 6 barrels. 

'' Six feet by six feet holds. 

* ' Seven ft. by seven ft. holds 

Eight ft. by eight ft. holds 

'' Nine ft. by nine ft. holds. 

Ten ft. by ten ft. holds... 

The above table is for one foot of depth only 



6 

81 

151 
191 
23f 



farmers' friend 327 



To find the contents of a trough^ measure its depth 
in feet and multiply it by the contents of one foot in 
depth. 

HOW TO FIND THE NUMBER OF SHINGLES REQUIRED FOR A ROOF. 




Rule. — Multiply the length of the ridge pole by twice 
the length on one rafter, and, if the shingles are to he 
exposed 4^ inches to the weather, multiply by 8, and if 
exposed 5 inches to the weather, multiply by 7 , and you 
have the number of shingles. 

Note. — Shingles are 16 inches long, and avei'age about 4 inches 
wide. They are put up in bundles of 250 each. 

HOV/ TO FIND THE NUMBER OF LATHS FOR A ROOM. 

Laths are 4 feet long and 1| inches wide, and 16 laths 
are generally estimated to the square yard. 

Rule. — Find the number of square yards in the room 
and multiply by 16, and the result will equal the num- 
ber of laths necessary to cover the room. 

HOW TO FIND THE NUMBER OF CORDS IN A PILE OF WOOD. 

A cord of wood is a pile 8 feet long, 4 feet wide and 4 
feet high and contains 128 cubic feet. 

Rule. — Multiply the length in feet by the width in feet 
and that result by the length in feet and divide the prod- 
uct by 128 and you have the number of cords. 

Example: How many cords in a pile of wood 4 feet 
wide, 7 feet high, 24 feet long. 

Solution : 4X7X24=672 cubic feet. 672^-128=5^ 
cords. Ans. 



528 



FARMERS FRIEND 



BOARD AND PLANK MEASUREMENT— AT SIGHT. 



This table gives the sq. ft. and inches in boards from 6 to 25 in. in wide, and from 8 to 36 
ft. long. If a board be longer than 36 ft , unite two numbers. Thus, if a board is 40 ft. long 
and 16 in. wide, add ?o and 10 and you haye 5? ft. 4 in. For 2 in. plank double the product 





4 in. 1 5 in. 


6 in: 


7 in. 


8 in. 


9 in. 


10 


in. 


11 


in. 12 


in. 13 


in~ 


14 


in. 


15 in 


Feet 


w 




w. 


w 




w. 


w 




■w 




w 




w 


w 


. 1 -w 




^ 




w 


Long 






























1 


- 




















ft. 
2 


m. 

8 


ft. in. 
3 4 


ft. 
4 


in. 



ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. 

7 


in. ft. 


in. ft. 

~o' 8 


in 

8 


ft. 
9 


in. 

4 


ft. in. 


8 


4 8 


5 


4 


re" 


~o 


"e" 


8 


10~~0 


9 


3 





3 9 


4 


6 


5 3 


6 





6 


9 


7 


6 


Jl 


3' 9 


0' 9 


9 


10 


6 


11 3 


10 


3 


4 


4 2 


5 





5 10 


6 


8 


7 


6 


8 


4 


2 10 


10 


10 


11 


8 


12 6 


11 


3 


8 


4 7 


5 


6 


6 5 


7 


4 


|8 


3 


9 


2 


10 


1 11 


0,11 


11 


12 


10 


13 9 


12 


4 





5 


6 





7 


8 





9 





10 





11 


12 


13 





14 





15 


13 


4 


4 


5 5 


6 


6 


7 7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


10 


10 


11 


11 13 


14 


1 


15 


2 


16 3 


14 


4 


8 


5 10 


7 





8 2 


9 


4 


10 


6 


11 


8 


12 


10 14 


15 




16 


4 


17 6 


15 


5 





6 3 


7 


6 


8 9 


10 





11 


3 


12 


6 


13 


9 15 


16 


3 


17 


6 18 9 


16 


5 


4 


6 8 


18 





9 4 


10 


8 


12 





13 


4 


14 


8 16 


17 


4 


18 


8 


20 


17 


5 


8 


7 1 


8 


6 


9 11 


11 


4 


12 


9 


14 




15 


7,17 


18 


5 


19 


10 


21 3 


18 


6 





7 6 


{9 





10 6 


12 





13 


6 


15 





16 


6 18 


019 


6 


21 





22 6 


19 


6 


4 


7 11 


9 


6 


11 1 


12 


8 


14 


3 


15 


10 


17 


5 19 


20 


7 


22 


2 


23 9 


20 


6 


8 


8 4 


10 





11 8 


13 


4 


15 





16 


8 


18 


4 20 


21 


8 


23 


4 


25 


21 


7 





8 9 


10 


6 


12 3 


14 





15 


9 


17 


6 


19 


3 21 


22 


9 


24 


6 


26 3 


22 




4 


9 2 


11 





12 10 


14 


8 


16 


6 


18 


4 


20 


2 22 


0,23 


10 


25 


8 


27 6 


23 


7 


8 


9 7 


11 


6 13 5 
0ll4 


15 




17 


3 


19 


2 


21 


1 23 


0,24 


11 


26 


10 


28 9 


24 


8 





10 


12 


16 





18 





20 





22 


24 


026 





28 





30 


25 


8 


4 


10 5 


12 


6 14 7 


16 


8 


18 


9 


20 


10 


22 


11 25 


27 


1 


29 


2 


31 3 


26 


8 


8 


10 10 


13 


15 2 


17 


4 


19 


6 


21 


8 


23 


10,26 


0.28 


2 


30 


4 


32 6 


27 


9 





11 3 


13 


6 15 9 


18 





20 


3 


22 


6 


24 


927 


0I29 


3 


31 


6 33 9 


28 


9 


4 


11 8 


14 


16 4 


18 


8 


21 





23 


4 


25 


8128 


30 


4 


32 


8.35 


29 


9 


8 


12 1 


14 


6 16 11 


19 


4 


21 


9 


24 




26 


7|29 


0,31 


5 


33 


10 36 3 


30 


10 


12 6 


15 


17 6 


20 





22 


6 


25 





27 


630 


32 


6 35 


0,37 6 


31 


10 


4 12 11 


15 


6 18 1 


20 


8 


23 


3 


25 


10 


28 


5;31 





33 


736 


2 


38 9 


32 


10 


8 13 4 


16 


0|18 8 


21 


4 


24 





26 


8 


29 


432 





34 581 37 


4 


40 


[33 


11 


13 9 


16 


6 19 3 


22 





24 


9 


27 


6 


30 


333 





35 


'9 38 


6 


41 3 


34 


11 


4 14 2 


17 


19 10:22 


8 


25 


6 


28 


4 


31 


2:34 





36 


1039 


8 


42 6 


35 


11 


8 14 7 


17 


620 5 23 


4 


26 


3 


29 




32 


1 35 





37 


1140 


10 


43 9 


36 


12 


15 


18 


21 24 


^ 


27 


_0 


30_ 


5 


33 


36 


39 


42 


45 




16 


in. 


17 in. 


18 


in. 


19 in. 


20 


in. 


21 


in. 


22 


in. 


23 


in. 


24 


in. 


25 


in. 


26^ 


in. 


27 in. 


~ 8 


10 


"i 


11 4 


12 





12 8 


13" 


4 


14 


"0 


14 


"s 


15 


1 


16 


"0 


16 


8 


17 


4 


18 


9 


12 





12 9 


13 


6 


14 3 


15 





15 


9 


16 


6 


17 


3 


18 





18 


9 


19 


6 


20 3 


10 


13 


4 


14 2 


15 





15 10 


16 


8 


17 


6 


18 


4 


19 




20 





20 


10 


21 


8 


22 6 


11 


14 


8 


15 7 


16 


6 


17 5 


18 


4 


19 


3 


20 


2 


21 


1 









11 


23 


10 


24 9 


12 


16 





17 


18 





19 


20 





21 





22 





23 





24 





25 





26 





27 


13 


17 


4 


18 5 


19 


6 


20 7 


21 


8 


22 


9 


23 


10 


24 


11 


26 





27 


1 


28 


2 


29 3 


14 


18 


8 


19 10 


21 





92 9 


23 


4 


24 


6 


25 


8 


26 


10 


28 





29 


2 


30 


4 


31 6 


15 


20 





21 3 


22 


6 


23 9 


25 





26 


3 


27 


6 


28 


9 


30 





31 


3 


32 


6 


33 9 


16 


21 


4 


22 8 


24 





25 4 


26 


8 


28 





29 


4 


30 


8 


32 





33 


4 


34 


8 


36 


17 


22 


8 


24 


25 


6 


26 11 


28 


4 


29 


9 


31 




32 


7 


34 





35 


5 


36 


10 


38 3 


18 


24 





25 6 


27 





28 6 


30 





31 


6 


33 





34 


6 


36 





37 


6 


39 





40 6 


19 


25 


4 


26 11 


28 


6 


30 1 


31 


8 


33 


3 


34 


10 


36 


5 


38 





39 


7 


41 


2 


42 9 


20 


26 


8 


28 4 


30 





31 8 


33 


4 


35 





36 


8 


38 


4 


40 





41 


8 


43 


4 


45 


21 


28 





29 9 


31 


6 


33 3 


35 





36 


9 


38 


6 


40 


3 


42 





43 


9 


45 


6 


47 3 


22 


29 


4 


31 2 


33 





34 10 


36 


8 


38 


6 


40 


4 


42 


2 


44 





45 


10 


47 


8 


49 6 


23 


30 


8 


32 7 


34 


6 


36 5 


38 


4 


40 


3 


42 


2 


44 


1 


46 





47 


11 


49 


10 


51 9 


! 24 


33 





34 


36 





38 


40 





42 





44 





46 





48 





50 





52 





54 


25 


34 


4 


35 5 


37 


6 


39 7 


41 


8 


43 


9 


45 


10 


47 


11 


50 





52 


1 


54 


2 


56 3 


26 


35 


8 


36 10 


39 





41 2 


43 


4 


45 


6 


47 


8 


49 


10 


52 





54 




56 


4 


58 6 


27 


36 





38 3 


40 


6 


42 9 


45 





47 


3 


49 


6 


51 


9 


54 





56 


3 


58 


6 


60 9 


28 


37 


4 


39 8 


42 





44 4 


46 


8 


49 





51 


4 


53 


8 


56 





58 


4 


60 


8 


63 


29 


38 


8 


41 1 


43 


6 


45 11 


48 


4 


50 


9 


53 


2 


55 


7 


58 





60 


5 


62 


10 


65 3 


30 


40 





42 6 


45 





47 6 


50 





51 


6 


55 





57 


6 


60 





62 


6 


65 





67 6 



FAEMEKS' FEIEND 



329 











LENGTH 


IN FEET 








Size in 






















Inches. 














' 










12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 1 


2x4 


8 


9 


11 


12 


13 


15 


16 


17 


19 


20 1 


2x6 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


2x8 


16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


37 


40 


2x 10 


20 


23 


27 


30 


33 


37 


40 


43 


47 


50 


2x 12 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


3x4 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


3x6 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


33 


36 




42 


45 


3x8 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


3 X 10 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


3x12 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


84 


90 


4x4 


16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


37 


40 


4x6 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


4 X S 


32 


37 


43 


48 


53 


59 


64 




75 


80 


4 X 10 


40 


47 


53 


60 


67 


73 


80 


87 


93 


100 


4x 12 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 


6x6 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


84 


90 


6x8 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 




96 


104 


112 


120 


6x 10. 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


6x 12 


72 


84 


96 


108 


120 


136 


144 


156 


168 


180 


8x8 


64 


75 


85 


96 


107 


117 


128 


139 


149 


160 


8x 10 


80 


93 


107 


120 


133 


147 


160 


173 


187 


200 


8x 12 


96 


112 


128 


144 


160 


176 


192 


208 


224 


240 


10 X 10 


100 


117 


133 


150 


167 


183 


200 


217 


233 


250 


10 X 12 


120 


140 


160 


180 


200 


220 


240 


260 


280 


300 


12 X 12 


144 


168 


192 


216 


240 


264 


288 


312 


336 


360 


12 X 14 


168 


196 


224 


252 


280 


308 


336 


364 


392 


420 


14 X 14 


196 


229 


261 


294 . 


327 


359 


392 


425 


457 


490 



THE ACTUAL WEIGHT OF DRY PINE LUMBER. 

Timber 3 lbs. per ft. 

Joists 2.8 '•' 

Inch Liunber (rough) 2.6 '' 

Inch Lumber (dressed) 2.3 " 

White Pine Flooring 1.9 '' 

Norway flooring 2.3 ' ' 

Shingles 250 " '' M 

Laths 500 " '' M 



THE FARM PEST. 



One of the painful nuisances to which the farmer is 
subjected is unreliable help. 

While it is true that the farm produces some of the 
grandest men in the world, it is equally true that it tol- 
erates some of the meanest men, who could not earn 
a support in any other occupation on earth, and have 
been kicked from one kind of business to another till 
they dropped down to a piece of land and, because it held 
them ujD they thought they were farmers; men who do 
not take to honesty any more than a mule to offsprings ; 



3,3.0 FAEMERS' FRIEND 



men, who under employment are interested in but three 
things, meal-time, sundown and pay-day. They excel in 
prompt attendance at the circus, in finding the easy end 
of a job, the soft side of a plank, a good excuse for neg- 
lect of duty. They are splendid marksmen, can kill time 
at five hundred yards, center ^shot, never miss. Such 
kind neighbors ; they know every bee tree on your prem- 
ises; they get their wood on your farm, pick apples in 
your orchard and secure all your nuts and berries sim- 
ply to patronize you; they keep three or four dogs to 
exercise your sheep and a one horned cow to browse the 
highway and act as fence examiner. Such trifles as wa- 
termelons, grapes and cherries are picked on shares, 
sometimes leaving the farmers' share on the tree, and 
sometimes on the ground. 

Seriously, the labor problem is greater than all others 
upon the farm. It is a tax which industry can ill afford 
to pay to shiftlessness. It precludes the farmer from 
doing any more work than he can personally superin- 
tend and force to completion, and it drives from the farm 
every man who, by impaired health, is unable to lead his 
work. 

There are noble exceptions to this state of things, but 
such soon own farms of their own. 

Possibly this condition of things cannot be remedied 
till the land is dearer and there is a more equitable sys- 
tem of rental. 

If farms could be cheaply, but durably improved and 
well stocked, rental upon equitable terms, would seem 
to form a basis for future prosperity to the enterprising 
laborer than the slow process of paying for a farm from 
the annual products. 

A higher condition of farm labor involves more intelli- 
gence honesty and thrift in the laborer and more science, 
liberality and business management on the part of the 
farmer, 

SYSTEMATIZE THE WORK. 

Systematizing the farm work more thoroughly will 
give good results in both time and amount of work done. 
Ten hours a day in the field, keeping steadily at it, ex- 



FAEMERS^ FRIEND 331 



cept occasional stops of a minute or two to rest the 
horses, with a little brain work will accomplish more in 
the run of the season than fourteen hours of aimless toil. 

MONTHLY WAGES TABLE.* 

HOW TO CAL,CULATE THE WAGES OF HIRED HELP AT SIGHT. 

*26 working days in a month. 
Compare the following figures with those on previous 
pages, the average weekly wages being given in each 
case : 

Brick- Masons. Carpenters. Black- Hod- Porters, 
layers. smiths, carriers. 

England, — 

$7.56 7.68 7.66 • 7.37 4.94 4.70 

Germany, — 

4.21 4.67 4.11 4.00 2.92 3.11 

HOW TO USE THE GRAIN TABLE. 

The heavy type column represents the weight of the 
load, and the number of bushels and pounds are at the 
right under the kind of grain. 

Example : How many bushels of oats in 2490 pounds 1 

Answer: 77 bushels and 26 pounds. 

Example: A timber 12 by 14 inches, 18 feet long, con- 
tains 252 square feet. 

TABLE OF WAGES BY THE WEEK GIVEN BY THE DAY AND HOUR. 

Example : What will the wages for 4 days and 7 hours 
amount to at $9.00 per week? Ans., $7.05. 

The above table is based on 10 hours a day. To find 
the amount for any number of days, 8 or 9 hours a day, 
multiply the number opposite 8 hours or 9 hours, as the 
case may be, by the number of days. 

Thus, 8 days and 6 hours at $11.00 a week, working 
9 hours a day, will amount to $1.65X8 =$13.20+$1.10, 
amount for 6 hours =$14.30. 

Eight days and 6 hours at $11.00 a week, working 8 
hours a day will amount to $1.46f X8=$11.73+$1.10, 
amount for six hours =$12.83. 











MONTHLY WAGE TABLES. 








Time. 


$1 


$3 


$7 


sio 


$11 


$12 


$13 


$14 


$15 


$16 


$17 


$18 


1 


.04 


.12 


.27 


.38 


.42 


.46 


.50 


.54 


.58 


.62 


.65 


.69 


2 


.08 


.23 


.54 


.77 


.85 


.92 


1.00 


1.08 


1.15 


1.23 


1.31 


1.38 


3 


.12 


.35 


.81 


1.15 


1.27 


1.38 


1.50 


1.62 


1.73 


1.85 


1.96 


2.08 


4 


.16 


.46 


1.08 


1.54 


1.69 


1.85 


2.00 


2.15 


2.31 


2.46 


2.62 


2.77 


5 


.19 


.58 


1.35 


1.92 


2.12 


2.31 


2.50 


2.69 


2.88 


3,08 


3.27 


3.46 


6 


.23 


.69 


1.62 


2,31 


2.54 


2.77 


3.00 


3.23 


3.46 


3.69 


3,92 


4.15 


7 


.27 


.81 


1 88 


2 69 


2,96 


3.23 


3.50 


3.77 


4.04 


4,31 


4,58 


4.85 


8 


.31 


.92 


2.15 


3,08 


3.38 


3.69 


4,00 


4.31 


4.62 


4.92 


5.23 


5.54 


9 


.35 


1.04 


2.42 


3.46 


3.81 


4.15 


4,50 


4.85 


5.19 


5.54 


5.88 


6.23 


10 


.38 


1.15 


2.69 


3.85 


4.23 


4.62 


5,00 


5.38 


5.77 


6.15 


6.54 


6.92 


11 


.42 


1.27 


2.96 


4.23 


4.65 


5.08 


5,50 


5.92 


6,35 


6,77 


7.19 


7.62 


12 


.46 


1.38 


3.23 


4,62 


5.08 


5.54 


6.00 


6.46 


6,92 


7,38 


7.85 


8.31 


13 


.50 


1.50 


3.50 


5,00 


5.50 


6.00 


6.50 


7,00 


7.50 


8,00 


8.50 


9.00 


14 


.54 


1.62 


3.77 


5.38 


5.92 


6.46 


7.00 


7,54 


8.08 


8,62 


9,15 


9.69 


15 


.58 


1.73 


4.04 


5.77 


6.35 


6.92 


7.50 


8.08 


8.65 


9,23 


9,81 


10.38 


16 


.62 


1.85 


4.31 


6.15 


6.77 


7.38 


8,00 


8.62 


9.23 


9.85 


10,46 


11.08 


17 


.65 


1.96 


4.58 


6,54 


7.19 


7.85 


8,50 


9.15 


9.81 


10.46 


11.12 


11.77 


18 


.69 


2.08 


4.85 


6.92 


7.62 


8.31 


9.00 




10.38 


11.08 


11.77 


12.46 


19 


.73 


2.19 


5.12 


7.31 


8.04 


8.77 


9.50 


10:23 


10.96 


11.69 


12.42 


13.15 


20 


.77 


2.31 


5.38 


7.69 


8.46 


9,23 


10,00 


10.77 


11.54 


12.31 


13.08 


13.85 


21 


.81 


2.42 


5.65 


8.08 


8.88 


9.69 


10,50 


11.31 


12.12 


12.92 


13.73 


14.54 


22 


.85 


2.54 


5,92 


8.46 


9.31 


10.15 


11,00 


11,85 


12,69 


13.54 


14,38 


15.23 


23 


.88 


2.65 


6.19 


8.85 


9.73 


10.62 


11.50 


12,38 


13.27 


14.15 


15,04 


15.92 


24 


.92 


2.77 


6.46 


9.23 


10.15 


11.08 


12,00 


l;2,92 


13.85 


14.77 


15.69 


16.62 


25 


.96 


2.88 


6.73 


9.62 


10.58 


11.54 


12.50 


13,46 


14.42 


15.38 


16.35 


17.31 


1 mo 


1.00 


3.00 


7.00 


10.00 


11.00 


12.00 


13.00 


14.00 


15.00 


16.00 


17.00 


18.00 


2 


2.00 


6.00 


14.00 


20.00 


22.00 


24,00 


26.00 


28.00 


30.00 


32.00 


34.00 


36.00 


3 


3.00 


9.00 


21.00 


30.00 


33.00 


36,00 


39,00 


42.00 


45,00 


48,00 


51,00 


54,00 


4 


4.00 


12.00 


28.00 


40.00 


44.00 


48,00 


52,00 


56.00 


60,00 


64,00 


68,00 


72,00 


5 


5.00 


15.00 


35.00 


50,00 


55.00 


60.00 


65,00 


70,00 


75.00 


80,00 


85.00 


90,00 


6 


6.00 


18.00 


42,00 


60,00 


66.00 


72.00 


78.00 


84,00 


90,00 


96.00 


102.00 


108 , 00 


7 


7.00 


21.00 


49,00 


70,00 


77.00 


84.00 


91.00 


98,00 


105,00 


112,00 


119,00 


126.00 


8 


8.00 


24.00 


56.00 


80,00 


88,00 


96,00 


104.00 


112.00 


120.00 


128,00 


136.00 


144.00 


9 


9.00 


27.00 


63.00 


90,00 


99,00 


108,00 


117.00 


126.00 


135.00 


144.00 


153.00 


162.00 


10 


10.00 


30.00 


70.00 


100,00 


110.00 


120.00 


130.00 


140.00 


150.00 


160.00 


170.00 


180.00 


11 


11.00 


33.00 


77.00 


110,00 


121.00 


132. OO 


143.00 


154.00 


165.00 


176.00 


187.00 


198.00 


lyr 


12.00 


36.00 


84.00 


120,00 


132.00 


144,00 


156.00 


168.00 


180.00 


192.00 


204.00 


216.00 



Time. 


$19 


$20 


$21 


$22 


$23 


$24 


$25 


$26 


$27 


$28 


$29 


1 


.73 


.77 


.81 


.85 


89 


.92 


.96 


1.00 


1.04 


1.07 


1.12 


2 


1.46 


1.54 


1.61 


1.70 


l!77 


1.85 


1,92 


2.00 


2.08 


2.15 


2.23 


3 


2.19 


2.31 


2.42 


2.55 


2.65 


2.77 


2.88 


3.00 


3.12 


3.23 


3.34 


4 


2.92 


3,08 


3.23 


3.38 


3.54 


3.70 


3.85 


4.00 


4.15 


4.30 


4.46 


5 


3.65 


3.85 


4.04 


4.23 


4.43 


4.62 


4.81 


5.00 


5.19 


5.38 


5.58 


6 


4.38 


4.62 


4.85 


5.08 


5.30 


5.54 


5.77 


6.00 


6.23 


6.46 


6.69 


7 


5.12 


5.38 


5.65 


5.92 


6.20 


6.46 


6.74 


7.00 


7.27 


7.54 


7.81 


8 


5.85 


6.15 


6.46 


6.77 


7.08 


7.38 


7.69 


8.00 


8.3] 


8.62 


8.92 


9 


6.58 


6.92 


7.27 


7.62 


7.96 


8.31 


8.64 


9.00 


9,35 




10.04 


10 


7.31 


7.61 


8.08 


8.46 


8.85 


9.23 


9.62 


10,00 


10.38 


10: 77 


11.15 


11 


8.04 


8.46 


8.88 


9.31 


9.73 


10.15 


10.58 


11,00 


11.42 


11.84 


12.27 


12 


8.77 


9.23 


9.69 


10.15 


10.62 


11.08 


11.53 


12.00 


12.46 


12.92 


13.38 


13 


9.50 


10.00 


10.50 


11.00 


11.50 


12.00 


12.50 


13.00 


13.50 


14.00 


14.50 


14 


10.23 


10.77 


11.31 


11.85 


12.40 


12.92 


13.46 


14.00 


14.54 


15.08 


15.61 


15 


10.96 


11,54 


12.12 


12.70 


13.28 


13,85 


14.42 


15.00 


15.58 


16.15 


16.73 


16 


11.69 


12,31 


12.92 


13.54 


14.15 


14.77 


15.48 


16.00 


16.61 


17.23 


17.84 


17 


12.42 


13.08 


13.73 


14.38 


15.05 


15.69 


16.35 


17.00 


17.64 


18.30 


18.96 


18 


13.15 


13.85 


14.54 


15.23 


15.92 


16.61 


17.31 


18.00 


18.68 


19.38 


20.07 


19 


13.88 


14.62 


15.35 


16.08 


16.80 


17.54 


18.26 


19.00 


19.73 


20.46 


21.19 


20 


14,62 


15.38 


16,15 


16.92 


17.70 


18.46 


19.24 


20.00 


20.76 


21.54 


22.30 


21 


15,35 


16.15 


16,96 


17.77 


18.58 


19.38 


20.19 


21.00 


21.79 


22.62 


23.42 


22 


16.08 


16.92 


17,77 


18.62 


19.46 


20.30 


21.15 


22.00 


22.84 


23.69 


24.53 


23 


16.81 


17.69 


18,57 


19.46 


20.34 


21.23 


22.12 


23.00 


23.88 


24,77 


25.65 


24 


17.54 


18.46 


19,38 


20.31 


21.23 


22.15 


23.08 


24.00 


24.92 


25.84 


26.76 


25 


18.27 


19.23 


20,19 


21.15 


22.12 


23.08 


24.04 


25,00 


25.96 


26.92 


27.88 


1 mo 


19.00 


20,00 


21,00 


22.00 


23.00 


24.00 


25.00 


26.00 


27.00 


28.00 


29.00 


2 


38.00 


40,00 


42.00 


44,00 


46.00 


48,00 


50,00 


52.00 


54.00 


56.00 


58.00 


3 


57.00 


60,00 


63,00 


66,00 


69.00 


72,00 


75.00 


78.00 


81.00 


84.00 


87.00 


4 


76.00 


80.00 


84,00 


88.00 


92.00 


96.00 


100.00 


104.00 


108.00 


112.00 


116.00 


5 


95.00 


100.00 


105.00 


110.00 


115,00 


120.00 


125.00 


130,00 


135.00 


140.00 


145.00 


6 


114.00 


120.00 


126.00 


132.00 


138.00 


144.00 


150,00 


156,00 


162.00 


168,00 


174.00 


7 


133.00 


140.00 


147 , 00 


154,00 


161.00 


168,00 


175.00 


182.00 


189.00 


196,00 


203.00 


8 


152,00 


160.00 


168.00 


176,00 


184.00 


192.00 


200.00 


208.00 


216.00 


224.00 


232.00 


9 


171.00 


180.00 


189.00 


198.00 


207.00 


216.00 


225.00 


234 . 00 


243 . 00 


252.00 


261.00 


10 


190.00 


200 , 00 


210.00 


220 . 00 


230.00 


240.00 


250.00 


260.00 


270.00 


280.00 


290.00 


11 


209.00 


220.00 


231.00 


242,00 


253.00 


264.00 


275.00 


286.00 


297.00 


308.00 


319.00 


lyr. 


228.00 


240.00 


252.00 


264,00 


276.00 


288,00 


300.00 


312.00 


324,00 


336 , 00 


348.00 



MONTHLY WAGE TABLES— CONTINUE D. 



Time. 


$30 


$31 


$32 


$33 


$34 


S35 


$36 


$37 


$38 


$39 


$40 


1 


1.15 


1.19 


1.23 


1.27 


1.31 


1.35 


1,38 


1.42 


1.46 


1.50 


1.54 


2 


2.31 


2.38 


2.46 


2.54 


2.62 


2.69 


2,77 


2.85 


2.92 


3.00 


3.07 


3 


3.46 


3.57 


3.69 


3.81 


3.92 


4.03 


4.15 


4.27 


4.38 


4.50 


4.62 


4 


4.62 


4.77 


4.92 


5.08 


5.23 


5.38 


5.53 


5,69 


5.84 


6.00 


6.15 


5 


5.77 


5.96 


6.15 


6.35 


6.54 


6.73 


6.92 


7,12 


7.30 


7.50 


7.69 


6 


6.92 


7.15 


7.38 


7.61 


7.84 


8.08 


8.31 


8.54 


8.77 


9.00 


9.23 


7 


8.07 


8.34 


8.62 


8.88 


9.15 


9.42 




9.96 


10.23 


10.50 


10.77 


8 


9.23 


9.54 


9.85 


10.15 


10.46 


10.77 


11^08 


11.38 


11.69 


12.00 


12.31 


9 


10.39 


10.73 


11.08 


11.42 


11.77 


12.11 


12.46 


12.81 


13,15 


13.50 


13.85 


10 


11.54 


11.92 


12.30 


12.69 


13.07 


13.46 


13.84 


14.23 


14.61 


15.00 


15.39 


11 


12.69 


13.11 


13.54 


13.96 


14.38 


14.81 


15.22 


15.65 


16.07 


16.50 


16.93 


12 


13.85 


14.31 


14.77 


15.22 


15.69 


16.15 


16.61 


17.07 


17.53 


18,00 


18.47 


13 


15.00 


15.50 


16.00 


16,50 


17.00 


17.50 


18.00 


18,50 


19,00 


19,50 


20.00 


14 


16.15 


16.69 


17.23 


17,77 


18.31 


18.85 


19.38 


19,92 


20.46 


21.00 


21.54 


15 


17.31 


17.88 


18.46 


19,04 


19.62 


20.19 


20.77 


21,35 


21.92 


22.50 


23.07 


16 


18.46 


19.07 


19.69 


20.31 


20.92 


21.54 


22.15 


22.77 


23.38 


24.00 


24.62 


17 


19.62 


20.25 


20.92 


21.58 


22.23 


22.89 


23.53 


24.19 


24.84 


25.50 


26.15 


18 


20.77 


21.44 


22.15 


22,85 


23,54 


24.22 


24.92 


25.61 


26.30 


27.00 


27.69 


19 


21.92 


22.64 


23.38 


24,12 


24.84 


25.57 


26,31 


27.03 


27.77 


28.50 


29.23 


20 


23.07 


23.84 


24.62 


25.39 


26,15 


26.92 


27.69 


28.46 


29.23 


30.00 


30.77 


21 


24.23 


25.03 


25.85 


26.66 


27,46 


28.27 


29.08 


29.88 


30.69 


31.50 


32.31 


22 


25.39 


26.22 


27.08 


27,93 


28.77 


29.62 


30,46 


31.30 


32.15 


33,00 


33.85 


23 


26.54 


27.41 


28.30 


29,20 


30.07 


30,96 


31.84 


32.72 


33.61 


34,50 


35.39 


24 


27,69 


28.60 


29.54 


30,47 


31.38 


32,31 


33.23 


34.15 


35.07 


36.00 


36.93 


25 


28.85 


29.81 


30.77 


31.73 


32.69 


33,65 


34.62 


35.57 


36.53 


37.50 


38.47 


1 mo 


30.00 


31.00 


32.00 


33,00 


34.00 


35,00 


36.00 


37.00 


38.00 


39.00 


40.00 


2 


60.00 


62.00 


64.00 


66,00 


68.00 


70.00 


72,00 


74.00 


76.00 


78.00 


80.00 


3 


90.00 


93.00 


96.00 


99.00 


102,00 


105,00 


108,00 


111.00 


114.00 


117.00 


120.00 


4 


120.00 


124.00 


128.00 


132.00 


136.00 


140,00 


144,00 


148.00 


150,00 


156.00 


160.00 


5 


150.00 


155.00 


160.00 


165.00 


170,00 


175.00 


180.00 


185.00 


190.00 


195.00 


200.00 


6 


180.00 


186.00 


192.00 


198.00 


204 . 00 


210,00 


216.00 


222 , 00 


228.00 


234,00 


240.00 


7 


210.00 


217.00 


224.00 


231.00 


238,00 


245,00 


252,00 


259,00 


266.00 


273 . 00 


280.00 


8 


240.00 


248.00 


256.00 


264.00 


272,00 


280.00 


288.00 


296,00 


304.00 


312.00 


320.00 


9 


270.00 


279 . 00 


288.00 


297.00 


306.00 


315,00 


324.00 


333.00 


342.00 


351.00 


360.00 


10 


300 . 00 


310.00 


320,00 


330.00 


340,00 


350,00 


360,00 


370,00 


380 , 00 


390.00 


400.00 


11 


330.00 


341.00 


352.00 


363 , 00 


374,00 


385,00 


396.00 


407,00 


418,00 


429.00 


440.00 


lyr 


360.00 


372.00 


384.00 


396,00 


408.00 


420 , 00 


432.00 


444 . 00 


456,00 


468.00 


480.00 



I CKI M O OS 01 lO 



)(©iOCO--iOOOOiOMOOCCcOC 

■-i^,-(-H(N!NMLO00'-i'*it 



rocbcootoMOiiDcooorootDmo 

-^iNiOOOOC<5lOOO"-H"*®COOcDmO 
i-l.Hrti-l<NC^)<M«OaOOOOCO 



H(NiOt 



((MOq'MLOt^OC-JiO 



-HMcoorocDOcotooc 



O^COiOtOCCO-HCOiOCDWOcDMO 
'-KN'^tOOOOCOiOt^Oi^COiOcOOOO 



IGOOOOOOO 

' rM ■* CO » d ri 



^ rt _i rt _ mio t~ 03 ' 



<C<5iOCOOOO 



.iOOiOOiOO>OOiOOOOOOO 
rHfO-^COt^OSO'NWiOOiOOiOO 



CDOOOOMCDOCOOSOCOCDOCOOO 
i-iO-jTjdoOOOOsOfMMtOOeOfflO 

i-irHrf(MTXiocoa) 



4 W M ■* lO t 



•*OOCD>OCO-HOOOCDiOCCfflOMCOO 
r-<MC<5'*iO'OtOI>OOtO'OW-HO 

^ M M Tj< lO 



mcoeoocDcoococoO'; 



.-< (M CS CO ■* Tf lO CO t 



»Hrt (M(NM 



■ COiOCDODO'^COiOOCCOtO 

^rtrtr-HrtCOOCO 



s?§ 



« + 









0) 
>^ O 



o a •- o 

-Sal 

"' t: a te 

5 5 aJ ^. 

■2 ■'it 

-^ s 2 ^ 



,? ^ 



;. ^ 






f3 -o ^ n o -o CO 

> rt j3 ra cc C N 

S o <"^ IM £ 
s rt . >- -4_. o 



KNfO-^iCCDWQOat-^NCOTjdOCO 



FARMERS FRIEND 



335 



HOW TO hIND THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS IN A LQAD 
OF GRAIN AT SIGHT. 



i= 


Oats 


Co;n, rye 


Barley 


Wheat 


§ 


Oats 


Corn, rye 


Berley 


Wheat 


^ 


?2lbs. 


50 lbs. 


48 Iba, 


60 lbs. 


^ 


?2 lbs 


50 lbs. 


48 lbs. 


60 lbs. 




Bus 


Lbs 


Bus 


Lbs 


B^ 


Lbs 


Bu 


sLbs 


B^ 


Lbs 


Bili 


Lbs 


Bil^ 


Lbs 


Bus 


Lbs 


1500 


46 


28 


26 


44 


31 


12 


25 


00 


2000 


62 


16 


35 


40 


41 


32 


33 


20 


1510 


47 


06 


26 


54 


31 


22 


25 


10 


2010 


62 


26 


35 


50 


41 


42 


33 


30 


1520 


47 


16 


27 


08 


31 


32 


25 


20 


2020 


63 


04 


36 


04 


42 


04 


33 


40 


1530 


47 


26 


27 


18 


31 


42 


25 


30 


2030 


63 


14 


36 


14 


42 


14 


33 


50 


1540 


48 


04 


27 


28 


32 


04 


25 


40 


2040 


63 


24 


36 


24 


42 


24 


34 


00 


1550 


48 


14 


27 


38 


32 


14 


25 


50 


2050 


64 


02 


36 


34 


42 


34 


34 


10 


1560 


48 


24 


27 


48 


32 


24 


26 


00 


2060 


64 


12 


36 


44 


42 


44 


34 


20 


1570 


49 


02 


28 


02 


32 


34 


26 


10 


2070 


64 


22 


36 


54 


43 


06 


34 


30 


1580 


49 


12 


28 


12 


32 


44 


26 


20 


2080 


65 


00 


37 


08 


43 


16 


34 


40 


1590 


49 


22 


28 


22 


33 


06 


26 


30 


2090 


65 


10 


37 


18 


43 


26 


34 


50 


1600 


50 


00 


28 


32 


33 


16 


26 


40 


2100 


65 


20 


37 


28 


43 


36 


35 


00 


1610 


50 


10 


28 


42 


33 


26 


26 


50 


2110 


65 


30 


37 


38 


43 


46 


35 


10 


1620 


50 


20 


28 


52 


33 


36 


27 


00 


2120 


66 


08 


37 


48 


44 


08 


35 


20 


1630 


50 


30 


29 


06 


33 


46 


27 


10 


2130 


66 


18 


38 


02 


44 


18 


35 


30 


1640 


51 


08 


29 


16 


34 


08 


27 


20 


2140 


66 


28 


38 


12 


44 


28 


35 


40 


1650 


51 


18 


29 


26 


34 


IS 


27 


30 


2150 


67 


06 


38 


22 


44 




35 


50 


1660 


51 


28 


29 


36 


34 


28 


27 


40 


2160 


67 


16 


38 


32 


45 


00 


36 


00 


1670 


52 


06 


29 


46 


34 


38 


27 


50 


2170 


67 


26 


38 


42 


45 


10 


36 


10 


1680 


52 


16 


30 


00 


35 


00 


28 


00 


2180 


68 


04 


38 


52 


45 


20 


36 


20 


1690 


52 


26 


30 


10 


35 


10 


28 


10 


2190 


68 


14 


39 


06 


45 


30 


36 


30 


1700 


53 


04 


30 


20 


35 


20 


28 


20 


2200 


68 


24 


39 


16 


45 


40 


36 


40 


1710 


53 


14 


30 


30 


35 


30 


28 


30 


2210 


69 


02 


39 


26 


46 


02 


36 


50 


1720 


53 


24 


30 


40 


35 


40 


28 


40 


2220 


69 


12 


39 


36 


46 


12 


37 


00 


1730 


54 


02 


30 


50 


36 


02 


28 


50 


2230 


69 


22 


39 


46 


46 


22 


37 


10 


1740 


54 


12 


31 


04 


36 


12 


29 


00 


2240 


70 


00 


40 


00 


46 


32 


37 


20 


1750 


54 


92 


31 


14 


36 


22 


29 


10 


2250 


70 


10 


40 


10 


46 


42 


37 


30 


1760 


55 


00 


31 


24 


36 


32 


29 


20 


2260 


70 


20 


40 


20 


47 


04 


37 


40 


1770 


55 


10 


31 


34 


36 


42 


29 


30 


2270 


70 


30 


40 


30 


47 


14 


37 


50 


1780 


55 


20 


31 


44 


37 


04 


29 


40 


2280 


71 


08 


40 


40 


47 


24 


38 


00 


1790 


55 


30 


31 


54 


37 


14 


29 


50 


2290 


71 


18 


40 


50 


47 


34 


38 


10 


1800 


56 


08 


32 


08 


37 


24 


30 


00 


2300 


71 


28 


41 


04 


47 


44 


38 


20 


1810 


56 


18 


32 


18 


37 


34 


30 


30 


2310 


72 


06 


41 


14 


48 


06 


38 


30 


1820 


56 


28 


32 


28 


37 


44 


30 


20 


2320 


72 


16 


41 


24 


48 


16 


38 


40 


1830 


57 


06 


32 


38 


38 


06 


30 


30 


2330 


72 


26 


41 


34 


48 


26 


38 


50 


1840 


57 


16 


32 


48 


38 


16 


30 


40 


2340 


73 


04 


41 


44 


48 


36 




00 


1850 


57 


26 


33 


02 


38 


26 


30 


50 


2350 


73 


14 


41 


54 


48 


46 


39 


10 


1860 


58 


04 


33 


12 


38 


36 


31 


00 


2360 


73 


24 


42 


08 


49 


08 


39 


20 


1870 


58 


14 


33 


22 


38 


46 


31 


10 


2370 


74 


02 


42 


18 


49 


18 


39 


30 


1880 


58 


24 


33 


32 


39 


08 


31 


20 


2380 


74 


12 


42 


28 


49 


28 


39 


40 


1890 


59 


02 


33 


42 


39 


18 


31 


30 


2390 


74 


22 


42 


38 


49 


38 


39 


50 


1900 


59 


12 


33 


52 


39 


28 


31 


40 


2400 


75 


00 


42 


48 


50 


00 


40 


00 


1910 


59 


22 


34 


06 


39 


38 


31 


50 


2410 


75 


10 


43 


02 


50 


10 


40 


10 


1920 


60 


00 


34 


16 


40 


00 


32 


00 


2420 


75 


20 


43 


12 


50 


20 


40 


20 


1930 


60 


10 


34 


26 


40 


10 


32 


10 


2430 


75 


30 


43 


22 


50 


30 


40 


30 


1940 


60 


20 


34 


36 


40 


20 


32 


20 


2440 


76 


08 


43 


32 


50 


40 


40 


40 


1950 


60 


30 


34 


46 


40 


30 


32 


30 


2450 


76 


18 


43 


42 


51 


02 


40 


50 


1960 


61 


08 


35 


00 


40 


40 


32 


40 


2460 


76 


28 


43 


52 


51 


12 


41 


00 


1970 


61 


18 


35 


10 


41 


02 


32 


50 


2470 


77 


06 


44 


06 


51 


22 


41 


10 


1980 


61 


28 


35 


20 


41 


12 


33 


00 


2480 


77 


16 


44 


16 


51 


32 


41 


20 


1990 


62 


06 35 1 


30 


41 


22 


33 


10 


2490 


77 


26 


44 


26 


51 


42 


41 


30 



336 



FARMERS FRIEND 



now TO FIND TIIE NUMBER OF BUSHELS IN A LOAD OP GRAIN 
AT SIGHT— CONTINUED. 



% 


Oats 


Corr 


, rye 


Ba 


rley 


Wheat 


be 


Oats 


Cot" 


, rye 


Ba 


ley 


Wheat 


$ 


3Z lbs. 


56 


lbs. 


48 lbs 


60 


lbs. 


^ 


32 


lbs. 


65 


lbs. 


48 


bs. 


60 lbs. 




Bus 


Lbs 


Bil^ 


Lte 


Bui^ 


Lbs 


Bus 


i:bs 




Bus 


Lbi 


Bus 


Lbs 


mil 


Lbs 


B^ 


Lb 


2500 


78 


04 


44 


36 


52 


04 


41 


40 


3010 


94 


02 


53 


42 


62 


34 


50 


10 


2510 


78 


14 


44 


46 


52 


14 


41 


50 


3020 


94 


12 


53 


52 


62 


44 


50 


20 


2520 


78 


24 


45 


00 


52 


24 


42 


00 


3030 


94 




54 


06 


63 


06 


50 


30 


2530 


79 


02 


45 


10 


52 


34 


42 


10 


3040 


95 


00 


54 


16 


63 


16 


50 


4a 


2540 


79 


12 


45 


20 


52 


44 


42 


20 


3050 


95 


10 


54 


26 


63 


26 


50 


50 


2550 


79 


22 


45 


30 


53 


06 


42 


30 


3060 


95 


20 


54 


36 


63 


36 


51 


00 


25S0 


SO 


00 


45 


40 


53 


16 


42 


40 


3070 


95 


30 


54 


46 


63 


46 


51 


10 


2570 


80 


10 


45 


50 


53 


26 


42 


50 


3080 


96 


08 


55 


00 


64 


08 


51 


20 


2580 


80 


20 


46 


04 


53 


36 


43 


00 


3090 


96 


18 


55 


10 


64 


18 


51 


30 


2590 


80 


30 


46 


14 


53 


46 


43 


10 


3100 


96 




55 


20 


64 


28 


51 


40 


2600 


81 


08 


46 


24 


54 


08 


43 


20 


3110 


97 


06 


55 


30 


64 


38 


51 


50 


2610 


81 


18 


46 


34 


54 


18 


43 


30 


3120 


97 


16 


55 


40 


65 


00 


52 


00 


2620 


81 


28 


46 


44 


54 


28 


43 


40 


3130 


97 


26 


55 


50 


65 


10 


52 


10 


2630 


82 


06 


46 


54 


54 


38 


43 


50 


3140 


98 


04 


56 


04 


65 


20 


52 


20 


2640 


82 


16 


47 


08 


55 


00 


44 


00 


3150 


98 


14 


56 


14 


65 


30 


52 


30 


2650 


82 


26 


47 


18 


55 


10 


44 


10 


3160 


98 


24 


56 


24 


65 


40 


52 


40 


2660 


83 


04 


47 


28 


55 


20 


44 


20 


3170 


99 


02 


56 


34 


66 


02 


52 


50 


2670 


83 


14 


47 


38 


55 


03 


44 


30 


3180 


99 


12 


56 


44 


66 


12 


53 


00 


2680 


83 


24 


47 


48 


55 


40 


44 


40 


3190 


96 


22 


56 


54 


66 


22 


53 


10 


2990 


84 


02 


48 


02 


59 


02 


44 


50 


3200 


00 


00 


57 


08 


66 


32 


53 


20 


2700 


84 


12 


48 


12 


56 


12 


45 


00 


3210 


00 


10 


57 


18 


66 


42 


53 


30 


2710 


84 


oo 


48 


22 


56 


22 


45 


10 


3220 


00 


20 


57 


28 


67 


04 


53 


40 


2720 


85 


00 


48 


32 


56 


32 


45 


20 


3230 


00 


30 


57 


38 


67 


14 


53 


50 


2730 


85 


10 


48 


42 


56 


42 


45 


30 


3240 


01 


08 


57 


48 


67 


24 


54 


00 


2740 


85 


20 


48 


52 


57 


04 


45 


40 


3250 


01 


18 


58 


02 


67 


34 


54 


10 


2750 


85 


•30 


49 


06 


57 


14 


45 


50 


3260 


01 


28 


58 


12 


67 


44 


54 


20 


2760 


86 


08 


49 


16 


57 


24 


46 


00 


3270 


02 


06 


58 


22 


68 


06 


54 


30 


2770 


86 


18 


49 


26 


57 


34 


46 


10 


3280 


02 


16 


58 


32 


68 


16 


54 


40 


2780 


86 


28 


49 


36 


57 


44 


46 


20 


3290 


02 


26 


58 


42 


68 


26 


54 


50 


2790 


87 


06 


49 


46 


58 


06 


46 


30 


3300 


03 


04 


58 


52 


68 


36 


55 


00 


2800 


87 


16 


50 


00 


58 


16 


46 


40 


3310 


03 


14 


59 


06 


68 


46 


55 


10 


2810 


87 


26 


50 


10 


58 


26 


46 


50 


3320 


03 


24 


59 


16 


69 


08 


55 


20 


2820 


88 


04 


50 


20 


58 


36 


47 


00 


3330 


04 


02 


59 


26 


69 


18 


55 


30 


2830 


88 


14 


50 


30 


58 


46 


47 


10 


3340 


04 


12 


59 


36 




28 


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ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 



Commenced 


At per Month 


' NAME 


Month 


Month 


Date 


Dollars 


Cts. 


190___ 


Jan. 










Feb. 












March 












April 












May 












June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 








• 




Jan. 












Feb. 












March 








. 




April 












May 












June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct 












Nov. 












Dee. 













Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. 

You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. 
A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- 
menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. 













i 


^ 


C 


c 


)C 


)l 


J 


N 


1 




WITH HIRED HELP 




































































No. of 

Days 

Worked 


Amount Due 
for MoDth 




.1 2 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


to 


11 


12 


13 


„ 


15 


16 


17 


19 


19 


20 


„ 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


Dollars 


Cts. 


H 
































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































L_ 




































































ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 



Commenced 
Work 


At per Month 


NAME 


Month 


Month 


Date 


Dollars 


Cts. 


190_ 


Jan. 






1 




Feb, 










March 










April 










May 




i 






June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 












Jan. 












Feb. 












March 












April 












May 1 










June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct 












Nov. 












Dec. 1 











Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. 

You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. 
A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- 
menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. 



ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 













— 1 
























~^ 


~" 


~" 
























No. of 

Days 

Worked 


Amount Due 
for Mpnth 






2 


3 


4 


S 


e 


7 


8 


9 


to 


11 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


19 


ts 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 






t 


Dollars 


Cts. 


s. 










































































































































*-■ 






































































• 
























































































































































































































e 






















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































f 






















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































_ 































ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 



Commenced 
Work 


At per Month 


NAME 


Month 


Month 


Date 


Dollars 


Cts. 


190___ 


Jan. 












Feb. 












iSarch 












April 








■ May 




1 






June 












July 






! 




August 










Sept. 1 










Oct. 








i 
1 


Nov. 












Dec. 












Jan. 












Feb. 












March 












April 












May 












June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 













Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. 

You have on this pag-e space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. 
A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- 
menced. No writing- necessary, yet you have a completve record. 



ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 

































































No. of 

Days 

Worked 


Amount Due 


— 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


19 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 






1 


Dollar 


Cts. 


Q. 




































































• 




































































































































































































































































































































































/T 




































? 


























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































— 1 
























































































































f 














































































































































1 — 


































































































• 






























































































































































































































































































































1 







































































ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 



Connnenced 


At per Month 


NAME 


Month 


Month 


Date 


Dollars 


Cts. 


190___ 


Jan. 












Feb. 












March 












April 












May 












June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct. 










Nov. 












Dec. 




1 
1 
! 






Jan. 












Feb. 




1 
1 






March 












April 












May 










June 


i 






July 




, 




August 








Sept. 


! I 






Oct. 


i I 






Nov. 










Dec. 1 











^ 



Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. 

You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. 
A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- 
menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. 



ACCOUNT WITH HIReD HELP 





















■~" 




























— 












No. of 

Days 

Worked 


Amount Due 
for Month 


■2 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


19 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 




27 


28 




31 




1 


25 


26 


29 


30 


Dollars 


Cts 


a. 


















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































f 




























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































- 










— 



























































ACCOUNT WITH HIRl£D HELP 



Commenced 
Work 


At per Month 


NAME 


Month 


Month 


Date 


Dollars 


Cts. 


190__. 


Jan. 












Feb. 












March 












April 






I 




May 












June 












July 












August 






1 




Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 












Jan. 












Feb. 










March 












April 












May 










June 












July 












August 












Sept. 


• 










Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 













Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. 

You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. 
A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- 
menced. No writing- necessary, yet you have a complete record. 



ACCOUNT WITH Hl'Peb HELP» 

































































No. of 

Days 

Worked 


Amount Due 
for Month 






2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


„ 


12 


13 


14 


15 


18 


17 


19 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


28 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 






\ 


Dollars 


Cts 


s. 


















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































f 




























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































- 


































































i 



ACCOUNT WITH HIRtiD HELP 



Commenced 
Work 


At per Month 


NAME 


Month 


Month 


Date 


Dollars 


Cts. 


190___ 


Jan. 












Feb. 










March 












April 






i 




May 












.Tune 








i 
1 


July 






1 ■ 1 


August 










Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 












Jan. 












Feb. 










March 










April 












May 










June 












July 






' 






August 












Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 













Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. 

You have on this pag-e space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. 
A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- 
menced. No writing- necessary, yet you have a complete record. 



ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 















1 










































' 








No. of 

Dayl 

Worked 


Amount Due 
for Mooth 






2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


19 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 






1 


Dollars 


Cts. 


a. 
















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































' 
















































































- 




























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































• 






































































































-J 















ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 



Commenced 


At per Month 


NAME 


Month 


Month 


Date 


Dollars 


Cts. 


190 _ 


Jan. 












Feb. 












March 






1 




April 






! 




May 












June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. . 












Dec. 










Jan. 










Feb. 












March 












April 












May 












June 












July 












August 












Sept. 












Oct. 












Nov. 












Dec. 











Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. 

You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. 
A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- 
menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. 



ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 























n 




- 


n 


- 


n 




n 
















P 








n 


No. of 

Days 

Worked 


Amount Due 




« 2 


S 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


t1 


12 


13 


14 


,5 


16 


17 


19 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 






Dollars 


Cts. 


<2 










































































































































i 
























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































- 


























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































. 





































































APR 29 1907 



